-m
' ?
.//7^v ^^''^
■71 ^^
C
9^. C'l^^ ^ri'i.^^r
A FRAGMENT.
LONDON : K. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD-STREET-HILL.
I
THE NINTH
BRIDGEWATER TREATISE
A FRAGMENT.
BY
CHARLES B ABB AGE, ESQ
"We may thus, with the greatest propriety, deny to the mechanical philosophers and mathematicians of recent times any authority with regard to their views of the administration of the universe ; we have no reason whatever to expect from their speculations any help, when we ascend to the first cause and supreme ruler of the universe. But we might perhaps go farther, and assert that they are in some respects less likely than men employed in other pursuits, to make any clear advance towards sucli a subject of speculation." — Bridgewatcr Treatise, by the Rev. Wm. Whewell, p. 334.
s'
LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
MDCCC XXXVII.
^
CONTENTS.
Page Preface v
Chapter I. Nature of the Argument 23
Chapter II.
Argument in favour of Design from the changing of
Laws in Natural Events 30
Chapter III.
Argument to show that the Doctrines in the preced- ing Chapter do not lead to Fatalism .... 50
Chapter IV.
On the Account of the Creation, in the First Chapter
of Genesis 63
B
11 CONTENTS.
Chapter V.
Page
Further View of the same Subject 72
Chapter VI. Of the Desire of Immortality 82
Chapter VII. On Time 88
Chapter VIII.
Argument from Laws intermitting— on the Nature of
Miracles 93
Chapter IX.
On the permanent Impression of our Words and
Actions on the Globe we inhabit 109
Chapter X. On Hume's Argument against Miracles . . . . 118
Chapter XI.
A priori Argument in favour of the Occurrence of
Miracles 133
Chapter XII. Thoughts on the Nature of Future Punishments . 143
I
CONTEiNTS. i4^
Chapter XIII.
Page
Reflections on Free Will 151
Chapter XIV. Thoughts on the Origin of Evil 156
Conclusion 157
APPENDIX.
Note A. On the great Law which regulates Matter . 163
B. On the Calculating Engine 170
C. Extract from the Theory of Probabilities
of La Place 173
D. Note to Chap. VIII. on Miracles ... 175
E. Note to Chap. X. on Hume's Argument
against Miracles . 176
F. On the Consequences of Central Heat . . 182
G. On the Action of Existing Causes in pro-
ducing Elevations and Subsidences in Portions of the Earth's Surface . . . 187
H. Tables showing the Expansion of Beds of
Granite variously heated 198
I. Extracts from Letters of Sir John Herschel 202 B 2
IV CONTENTS.
Page K. On the Elevation of Beaches by Tides . . 218
L. On Ripple Mark 222
M. On the Age of Strata, as inferred from the
Rings of Trees embedded in them . . 226
N. On a Method of multiplying Illustrations
from Wood-Cuts 235
PREFACE.
The volume here presented to the public does not form a part of that series of works com- posed at the desire of the trustees who directed the application of the bequest of £8000, by the late Earl of Bridgewater, for the purpose of advancing arguments in favour of Natural Rehgion.
VI PREFACE.
I have, however, thought, that in furthering the intentions of the testator, by pubHshing some reflections on that subject, I might be permitted to connect with them a title which has now become famiharly associated, in the pubHc mind, with the evidences in favour of Natural Religion.
The Bridgewater Treatises were restricted by the founder to the subject of Natural Rehgion ; and I had intended not to have deviated from their example. In the single instance in which the question of miracles has been discussed, I was led so irresistibly, by the very nature of the illustrations employed in the former argument, to the view there proposed, that I trust to being excused for having ventured one step beyond the strict limits of that argument, by entering on the first connecting link between natural religion and revelation.
The same argument will produce very various
PREFACE. Vll
degrees of conviction on different minds ; and much of this difference will depend on the extent of previous information, and on the strength of the reasoning faculty in those to whom the argument is addressed. To the great variety, therefore, of the illustrations which have been adduced in proof of design and of benevolence in the works of the Creator, there can be no objection. In truth, to the cultivated eye of science, the origin and consequences of the mightiest hurricane, as well as those of the smallest leaf it scatters in its course, equally lead to the inference of a designing power, the more irresistibly the more extensive the knowledge which is brought to bear on those phenomena.
One of the chief defects of the Treatises above referred to appears to me to arise from their not pursuing the argument to a suffi- cient extent. When a multitude of appa- rently unconnected facts is traced up to some
Vlll PREFACE.
common principle, we feel spontaneously an admiration for him who has explained to us the connexion; and if, advancing another stage in the investigation, he prove that other facts, apparently at variance with that prin- ciple, are not merely no exceptions, but are themselves inevitable consequences of its ap- plication, our admiration of the principle, and our respect for its discoverer, are still further enhanced.
But if this respect and admiration are yielded to the mere interpreter of Nature's laws, how much more exalted must those sentiments become when applied to the Being who called such principles into living exist- ence by creating matter subservient to their dominion — whose mind, intimately cognizant of the remotest consequences of the present as well as of all other laws, decreed existence to that one alone, which should comprehend within its grasp the completion of its destiny —
PKEl'ACE. IX
which should require no future intervention to meet events unanticipated by its author, in whose omniscient mind we can conceive no infirmity of purpose — no change of intention !
The object of these pages, as of the Bridge- water Treatises, is to show that the power and knowledge of the great Creator of matter and of mind are unlimited. Deeply engaged in those other pursuits from which my chief argu- ments are drawn, I regret the impossibility of bestowing on their full development that time and attention which the difficulty and import- ance of the subject equally deserve ; and in committing these fragments to the press, perhaps in too condensed a form, I wish them to be considered merely as suggestions in- tended to direct the reader's attention to lines of argument which appear to me new, and to views of nature which appear more magnifi- cent, than those with which I was previously acquainted.
X PREFACE.
Probably I should not have been induced to place my reflections on the subject before the public, had I not, in common with other cultivators of the more abstract branches of mathematical science, felt that a prejudice, which I had believed to have been long eradi- cated from every cultivated mind, had lately received support, at least to a certain extent, from a chapter in the first* of the Bridgewater Treatises ; and in a still greater degree, from a work of a far different order — -one, however, which derived its only claim to notice from the circumstance of its appearing under the sanc- tion of the University of Oxford.
The prejudice to which I allude is, that the pursuits of science are unfavourable to religion.
There are two classes of men most deeply impressed with the conviction of the very
* It was the first in the order of puhlication.
PREFACE. XI
limited extent of human knowledge — those whose contracted information renders them eminent examples of the fact, and those whose wide grasp of many of its profoundest branches has taught them, by lengthened experience, that each accession to their stock but enables them to view a larger portion of its illimitable field. Those who belong to the first of these classes must acquire the alphabet of science, in order to understand knowledge, and the elements of modesty, to use it with dignity. When they have thus graduated in the " infant school" of philosophy, they may perhaps understand the argument, and perchance be w^orthy of a reply, — but not till then.
In that chapter of the first Bridgewater Treatise to which I have referred, the charge seems not even to be limited to those who pursue that branch of science which is con- versant with the properties of pure number, and with abstractions of a like nature, but
XII PREFACE.
applies to all who cultivate deductive processes of reasoning.
It is maintained by the author, that long application to such inquiries disqualifies the mind from duly appreciating the force of that kind of evidence which alone can be adduced in favour of Natural Theology.
*' We may thus, with the greatest propriety, deny to the mechanical philosophers and mathematicians of recent times any authority with regard to their views of the administra- tion of the universe ; we have no reason whatever to expect from their speculations any help, when we ascend to the first cause and supreme ruler of the universe. But we might perhaps go farther, and assert that they are in some respects less likely than men employed in other pursuits, to make any clear advance towards such a subject of specu- lation."— Bridgewater Treatise, hy the'REV. Wm. Whewell, p. 334.
Admitting, for the sake of argument, that there have been individuals, possessed of high intellectual powers, successfully devoted to those subjects, who have arrived by reasoning at conclusions respecting the First Cause,
PREFACE. Xlll
totally opposite to those entertained by Mr. Whevvell and myself, I should still be very reluctant to endeavour to invalidate the in- fluence of their conclusions, by any inquiry either into their intellectual or their moral character. Reasoning is to be combated and refuted by reasoning alone. Any endeavour to raise a prejudice, or throw the shadow of an imputation, either implies the existence of some latent misgiving in the minds of those who employ such weapons, or is a tacit admis- sion that the question is beyond the grasp of one at least of the debaters.
Who that has studied their works ever dreamed of inquiring into the moral or intel- lectual character of Euclid or Archimedes, for the purpose of confirming or invalidating his belief in their conclusions ? Who that pos- sesses confidence in his own reason, justified by a laborious cultivation and successful exercise of that faculty, fails to anatomize and
XIV PREFACE.
refute the arguments, rather than analyze the mental or moral habits of those from whom he differs ?
The only case in which such extraneous matters can be fairly called in, is when facts are stated resting on testimony. Then it is not only just, but it is necessary for the sake of truth, to inquire into the habits of mind of him by whom they are adduced ; — whether he possesses sufficient talent and precision to enable him to state precisely what his senses convey to him, and nothing more ; or, if he receive information from others, whether he is credulous or cautious. In both cases, it is necessary to inquire into moral feelings, in order to be assured that there is no wilful mis-statement in the groundwork of his reasoning. And even when this is well established, it is still ne- cessary to inquire whether he had any personal, professional, or pecuniary interest
PREFACE. XV
which may insensibly have influenced his mind in one direction.
Such I conceive to be the sound distinction between those branches of knowledge resting on facts open to the observation of all, sup- ported by reasoning addressed to the under- standings of all, — and those other branches in which reasoning is mixed up with testi- mony. In the former, the argument is every thing — the character nothing: in the latter, the character must be sifted as well as the arguments.
Feeling convinced that the truths of Natural Religion rest on foundations far stronger than those of any human testimony ; that they are impressed in indelible characters, by almighty power, on every fragment of the material world, I cannot but regret that reflections should have been made, in connexion with this subject, calculated to throw the least
XVI PREFACE.
shadow of doubt on evidence otherwise irre- sistible.
As, however, these views of the nature of the question may not bring that conviction to other minds, which they do to my own, and as one of the disturbing forces which act on our minds has been strongly put forward, it is but justice to state the whole of them. It requires but little insight into man's heart to perceive that profession and pro- fessional advancement — that power and wealth — have a far more frequent and more effective influence on his judgment than any mental habits he may be supposed to have cultivated.
It may be right then to state, that the author of these pages has always been an ardent but not an exclusive cultivator of some of the more abstract branches of mathematical science. In pursuing one of those inquiries,
PREFACK. XVll
amongst the most recondite and apparently the most removed from any practical applica- tion, he was struck with the bearing of some of the results which presented themselves, on the question of Natural Religion ; and these he has endeavoured to place before the reader, in the following pages.
The author belongs to no profession in which he can hope for advancement, if he suc- cessfully advocate one side of the question, oi in which his prospects can be injured by can- didly stating any arguments on the other. He has not been invited by men high in the State, and deservedly respected, to support that great basis which precedes all revelation, and on which it must all rest. Nor has any sum of money been assigned to him, that, whatever the mercantile success or failure of the present volume may be, he shall, on its publication, reap a large pecuniary reward.
c
XVlll PREFACE.
Having chosen a career to which the insti- tutions of the country hold out none of those great prizes that stimulate professional exer- tions, and which constrain men to yield a cer- tain degree of deference to the opinions, sound or unsound, of their countrymen, he has, on the one hand, nothing to hope from their ap- probation, and, on the other, is equally exempt from any fear of their censure ; and, had his conviction been as strongly opposed to the doctrines this Fragment advocates, as it is in their favour, he would, had a fit occasion presented itself, fearlessly have laid before the world the arguments which had forced his mind to that conviction.
In conclusion, I have to express to my fel- low-labourers in the cause, my hope that they will put no unkind interpretation on these re- marks, which, founded on principles of human nature, are necessarily of general application ; that they will see that motives alien, in my
piii:rAcr:. xix
own opinion, to the subject, having been once introduced, candour to those who differ from us, as well as a deference to truth itself, com- pelled me to state them fully.
CHARLES BABBAGE.
Dorset-street, Manchester-square,
Jpril 1837,
c2
XXI
The following account of the origin of the Bridge- water Treatises, is extrcictcd from one of these works : —
" The Right Honourable and Reverend Francis Henry, Earl of Bridgewater, died in the month of February, 1829; and, by his last will and testament, bearing date the 25th of February, 1825, he directed certain Trustees therein named, to invest in the public funds the sum of eight thousand pounds sterling; this sum, with the accruing dividends thereon, to be held at the disposal of the President, for the time being, of the Royal Society of London, to be paid to the person or persons nominated by him. The tes- tator further directed, that the person or persons selected by the said President should be appointed to write, print, and publish, one thousand copies of a work " On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation ;" illustrating such work by all reasonable arguments, as, for instance, the variety and formation of God's creatures in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms; the effect of digestion, and thereby of conver- sion; the construction of the hand of man, and an infinite variety of other arguments: as also by discoveries, ancient and modern, in arts, sciences, and the whole extent of literature. He desired, moreover, that the profits arising from the sale of the works so published should be paid to the authors of the works.
The late President of the Royal Society, Davies Gilbert, Esq., requested the assistance of his Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury, and of the Bishop of London, in determining upon the best mode of carrying into effect the intentions of the testator. Acting with their advice, and with the concurrence of a nobleman immediately connected with the deceased, Mr. Davies Gilbert appointed eight gentlemen to write separate Treatises on the different branches of the subject."
XXll
Of the eight gentlemen so appointed, four were of the clerical, and four of the medical, profession. Their names, and the subjects assigned to them, are as follows: —
1. The Rev. Thomas Chalmers, D.D., Professor of Divinity in
the University of Edinburgh — " On the Adaptation of Ex- ternal Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man."
2. The Rev. Wm. Buckland, D.D., F.R.S., Canon of Christ
Church, and Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford — •' On Geology and Mineralogy."
3. The Rev. Wm. Whewell, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity
College,Cambridge — " OnAstronomy andGeneral Physics."
4. The Rev. Wm. Kirby, M.A., F.R.S.—" On the History,
Habits, and Instincts of Animals."
5. John Kidd, M.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Medicine in
the University of Oxford — " On the Adaptation of Ex- ternal Nature to the Physical Condition of Man,"
6. Sir Charles Bell, K.H., F.R.S.—*' The Hand: its Me-
chanism and Vital Endowments, as evincing Design."
7. Peter Mark Roget, M.D., Fellow of, and Secretary to, the
Royal Society — " On Animal and Vegetable Physiology."
8. Wm. Prout, M.D., F.R.S.—" On Chemistry, Meteorology,
and the Function of Digestion."
CHAP. I.
NATURE OF THE ARGUMENT.
The notions we acquire of contrivance and design arise from comparing our observations on the v^orks of other beings v^ith the inten- tions of which we are conscious in our own undertakings. We take the highest and best of human faculties, and, exalting them in our imagination to an unlimited extent, endeavour to attain an imperfect conception of that Infinite Power which created every thing around us. In pursuing this course, it is evident that we are liable to impress upon the
24 INTRODUCTION.
notion of Deity thus shadowed out, many traces of those imperfections in our own limited faculties which are best known to those who have most deeply cultivated them. It is also evident that all those discoveries which arm human reason with new power, and all additions to our acquaintance with the material world, must from time to time render a revision of that notion necessary. The present seems to be a fit occasion for such a revision.
Many excellent and rehgious persons not deeply versed in what they mistakenly call " human knowledge,'' but which is in truth the interpretation of those laws that God himself has impressed on his creation, have endea- voured to discover proofs of design in a multitude of apparent adaptations of means to ends, and have represented the Deity as perpetually interfering, to alter for a time the laws he had previously ordained; thus by implication denying to him the possession
INTRODUCTION. 25
of that foresight which is the highest attribute of omnipotence. Minds of this order, insen- sible of the existence of that combining and generahsing faculty which gives to human intellect its greatest development, and tied down by the trammels of their own peculiar pursuits, have in their mistaken zeal not per- ceived their own unfitness for the mighty task, and have ventured to represent the Creator of the universe as fettered by the same infirmities as those by which their own limited faculties are subjugated. To causes of this kind must in some measure be attributed an opinion which has been industriously spread, that minds highly imbued with mathematical knowledge are disqualified, by the possession of that knowledge, and by the habits of mind produced during its acquisition, from rightly appreciating the works of the Creator.
At periods and in countries in which the knowledge of the priests exceeded that of the people, science has always been held up by the
26 INTRODUCTION.
former class as an object of regard, and its crafty possessors have too frequently defiled its purity by employing their knowledge for the delusion of the people. On the other hand, at times and in countries in which the know- ledge of the people has advanced beyond that of the priesthood, the ministers of the temple have too often been afraid of the advance of knowledge, and have threatened with the displeasure of the Almighty those engaged in employing the faculties he has bestowed on the study of the works he has created. At the present period, when know- ledge is so universally spread that neither class is far in advance of the other, — when every subject is submitted to unbounded discussion, — when it is at length fully acknow- ledged that truth alone can stand unshaken by perennial attacks, and that error, though for centuries triumphant, must fall at last, and leave behind no ashes from which it may revive, the authority of names has but little weight : facts and arguments are the basis of
INTRODUCTION. 27
creeds, and convictions so arrived at are the more deeply seated, and the more enduring, because they are not the wild fancies of pas- sion or of impulse, but the deliberate results of reason and reflection.
«
It is a condition of our race that we must ever w^ade through error in our advance towards truth ; and it may even be said that in many cases we exhaust almost every variety of error before we attain the desired goal. But truths, once reached by such a course, are always most highly valued ; and when, in addition to this, they have been exposed to every variety of attack which splendid talents quickened into energy by the keen perception of personal interests can suggest, — when they have revived undying from unmerited neglect ; when the anathema of spiritual, and the arm of secular power have been found as im.potent in suppressing, as their arguments were in refuting them, then they are indeed irre- sistible. Thus tried and thus triumphant in
28 INTRODUCTION.
the fiercest warfare of intellectual strife, even the temporary interests and furious passions which urged on the contest, have contributed in no small measure to establish their value, and thus to render these truths the permanent heritage of our race.
Viewed in this light, the propagation of an error, although it may be unfavourable or fatal to the temporary interest of an individual, can never be long injurious to the cause of truth. It may, at a particular time, retard its progress for a while, but it repays the trans- itory injury by a benefit as permanent as the duration of the truth to which it was opposed. This reasoning is offered for the purpose of proving that the toleration of the fullest dis- cussion is most advantageous to truth. It is not offered as the advocate of or the apology for error ; and whilst it is admitted that every person who wilfully puts forward as valid an argument the soundness of which he doubts, incurs a deep responsibility, it is also some
INTRODUCTION. 29
satisfaction to reflect that the delay thus occa- sioned to the great cause can be but small, and that those who in sincerity of heart main- tain arguments which a more advanced state of knowledge shall prove to be erroneous, may yet ultimately contribute, by that very publi- cation, to its speedier establishment.
CHAP. II.
ARGUMENT IN FAVOUR OF DESIGN FROM THE CHANGING OF LAWS IN NATURAL EVENTS.
The estimate we form of the intellectual capacity of our race, is founded on an exa- mination of those productions which have resulted from the loftiest flights of individual genius, or from the accumulated labours of generations of men, by whose long-continued exertions a body of science has been raised up, surpassing in its extent the creative powers of any individual, and demanding for its deve- lopment a length of time, to which no single life extends.
ARGUMENT IN FAVOUR OF DESIGN. 31
The estimate we form of the Creator of the visible world rests ultimately on the same foundation. Conscious that we each of us em- ploy, in our own productions, means intended to accomplish the objects at which we aim, and tracing throughout the actions and inventions of our fellow-creatures the same intention, — judging also, of their capacity by the fit selec- tion they make of the means by which they work, we are irresistibly led, when we con- template the natural world, to attempt to trace each existing fact presented to our senses to some precontrived arrangement, itself per- haps the consequence of a yet more general law; and where the most powerful aids by which we can assist our limited faculties fail in enabling us to detect such connexions, we still, and not the less, believe that a more extended inquiry, or higher powers, would enable us to discover them.
The larger the number of consequences resulting from any law, and the more they are foreseen, the greater the knowledge and intel-
32
ARGUMENT IN
ligence we ascribe to the being by which it was ordained. In the earher stages of our knowledge, we behold a multitude of distinct laws, all harmonizing to produce results which we deem beneficial to our own species : as science advances, many of these minor laws merge into some more general principles ; and with its higher progress these secondary prin- ciples appear, in their turn, the mere conse- quences of some still more general law. Such has been the case in two of the most curious and most elaborately cultivated branches of human knowledge, the sciences of astronomy and optics* All analogy leads us to infer, and new discoveries continually direct our expecta- tion to the idea, that the most extensive laws to which we have hitherto attained, converge to some few simple and general principles, by which the whole of the material universe is sustained, and from which its infinitely varied phenomena emerge as the necessary conse-
quences
*
See Note A in the Appendix.
FAVOUR OF DKSIGN. 33
To illustrate the distinction between a sys- tem to which the restoring hand of its con- triver is applied, either frequently or at distant intervals, and one which had received at its first formation the impress of the will of its author, foreseeing the varied but yet neces- sary laws of its action, throughout the whole extent of its existence, we must have recourse to some machine, the produce of human skill. But for as all such engines must ever be placed at an immeasurable interval below the simplest of Nature's works, yet, from the vastness of those cycles which even human contrivance in some cases unfolds to our view, we may perhaps be enabled to form a faint estimate of the magnitude of that lowest step in the chain of reasoning, which leads us up to Nature's God.
The illustration which I shall here employ will be derived from the results afforded by the Calculating Engine ;* and this I am the
* The reader will find a short account of this engine in the Appendix, Note B.
D
34
ARGUMENT IN
more disposed to use, because my own views respecting the extent of the laws of Nature were greatly enlarged by considering it, and also because it incidentally presents matter for reflection on the subject of inductive reasoning. Nor will any difficulty arise from the complexity of that engine ; no knowledge of its mechanism, nor any acquaintance with mathematical science, being necessary for comprehending the illustration, it being suffi- cient merely to conceive that computations of great complexity can be effected by me- chanical means.
Let the reader imagine that such an engine has been adjusted; and that it is moved by a weight ; and that he sits dow^n before it, and observes a wheel, which revolves through a small angle round its axis, at short intervals, presenting to his eye, successively, a series of numbers engraved on its divided circum- ference.
FAVOUR OF DESIGN. 35
Let the figures thus seen he the scries 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., of natural numhers, each of which exceeds its immediate antecedent by unity.
Now, reader, let me ask how long you will have counted before you are firmly convinced that the engine has been so adjusted that it will continue whilst its motion is maintained, to produce the same series of natural numbers ? Some minds are so constituted, that after passing the first hundred terms, they will be satisfied that they are acquainted with the law. After seeing five hundred terms, few^ will doubt ; and after the fifty-thousandth term the propensity to believe that the succeeding term will be fifty thousand and one, will be almost irresistible. That term zalll be fifty thousand and one ; and the same regular suc- cession will continue ; the five-millionth and the fifty-millionth term will still appear in their expected order ; and one unbroken chain of natural numbers will pass before your eyes, from one up to one hundi^ed million.
d2
36 ARGUMENT IN
True to the vast induction which has been made, the next succeeding term will be one hundred miUion and one ; but the next num- ber presented by the rim of the wheel, in- stead of being one hundred milUon and two, is one hundred million ten thousand and two. The whole series from the commencement
being thus : —
1 2
3 4
• • •
• • •
99,999,999
100,000,000
regularly as far as 100,000,001
100,010,002 the law changes
100,030,003
100,060,004
100,100,005
100,150,006
100,210,007
100,280,008
FAVOUR OF DESIGN. 37
The law which seemed at first to govern this series fails at the hundred million and second term. This term is larger than we expected, by 10,000. The next term is larger than was anticipated, by 30,000, and the excess of each term above what we had expected forms the
following table : —
10,000
30,000
60,000 100,000 150,000
being, in fact, the series of triangular num- hers,^ each multiplied by 10,000.
* The numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, &c. are formed by adding the successive terms of the series of natural numbers thus ;
1 = 1. 1+2 = 3. 1+2 + 3 = 6. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10, &c. They are called triangular numbers, because a number of points corresponding to any term can always be placed in the form of a triangle, for instance : —
10
Ob ARGUMENT IN
If we now continue to observe the num- bers presented by the wheel, we shall find, that for a hundred, or even for a thousand terms, they continue to follow the new law relating to the triangular numbers ; but after watching them for 2761 terms, we find that this law fails in the case of the 2762d term.
If we continue to observe, we shall discover another law then coming into action, which also is dependent, but in a different manner, on triangular numbers. This will continue through about 1430 terms, when a new law is again introduced, which extends over about 950 terms ; and this too, like all its prede- cessors, fails, and gives place to other laws, which appear at different intervals.
Now it must be remarked, that the law that each number presented by the Engine is greater by unity than the preceding number, which law the observer had deduced from an induction of a hundred million instances, was
FAVOUR OF DESIGN. 39
not the true law that regulated its action ; and that the occurrence of the number 100,010,002 at the 1 00,000,002d term, was as necessari/ a consequence of the original adjustment, and might have been as fully foreknown at the commencement, as was the regular succession of any one of the intermediate numbers to its immediate antecedent. The same remark applies to the next apparent deviation from the new law, which was founded on an in- duction of 2761 terms, and also to the suc- ceeding law ; with this limitation only — that whilst their consecutive introduction at various definite intervals is a necessary consequence of the mechanical structure of the engine, our knowledge of analysis does not enable us to predict the periods themselves at which the more distant laws will be introduced.
Such are the facts which, by a certain ad- justment of the Calculating Engine, would be presented to the observer. Now, let him ima- gine another engine, offering to him precisely
40 ARGUMENT IN
the same figures in the same order of suc- cession ; but let it be necessary for the maker of that other engine, previously to each appa- rent change in the law, to make some new adjustment in the structure of the engine itself, in order to accomplish the ends proposed. The first engine must be susceptible of having embodied in its mechanical structure, that more general law of which all the observed laws were but isolated portions, — a law so complicated, that analysis itself, in its present state, can scarcely grasp the whole question. The second engine might be of far simpler contrivance ; it must be capable of receiving the laws impressed upon it from without, but is incapable, by its own intrinsic structure, of changing, at definite periods, and in unhmited succession, those laws by which it acts. Which of these two engines would, in the reader's opinion, give the higher proof of skill in the contriver? He cannot for a moment hesitate in pronouncing that that on which, after its original adjustment, no superintend-
FAVOUR OF DESICJN. 41
ance was required, displayed far greater in- genuity than that which demanded, at every change in its law, the intervention of its contriver.
The engine we have been considering is but a very small portion (about fifteen figures) of a much larger one, which was preparing, and partly executed ; it was intended, when completed, that it should have presented at once to the eye about one hundred and thirty figures. In that more extended form which recent simplifications have enabled me to give to machinery constructed for the purpose of making calculations, it will be possible, by cer- tain adjustments, to set the engine so that it shall produce the series of natural numbers in regular order, from unity up to a number ex- pressed by more than a thousand places of figures. At the end of that term, another and a different law shall regulate the succeeding terms ; this law shall continue in operation per- haps for a number of terms, expressed by unity^
42 ARGUMEiNT IN
followed by a thousand zeros, or 10^^"^; at which period another law shall be introduced, and, like its predecessors, govern the figures produced by the engine during a third of those enormous periods. This change of laws might continue without limit ; each individual law destined to govern for millions of ages the cal- culations of the engine, and then give way to its successor to pursue a like career.*
Thus a series of laws, each simple in itself, successively spring into existence, at distances almost too great for human conception. The full expression of that wider law, which com- prehends within it this unlimited sequence of minor consequences, may indeed be beyond the utmost reach of mathematical analysis : but of one remarkable fact, however, we are
* It has been supposed that ten turns of the handle of the calculating engine might be made in a minute, or about five hundred and twenty-six millions in a century. As in this case, each turn would make a calculation, after the lapse of a million of centuries, only the fifteenth place of figures would have been reached.
FAVOUR OF DESIGN. 43
certain — that the mechanism brought into action for the purpose of changing the nature of the calculation from the production of its more elementary operations into those highly complicated ones of which we speak, is itself of the simplest kind.
In contemplating the operations of laws so uniform during such immense periods, and then changing so completely their apparent nature, whilst the alterations are in fact only the necessary consequences of some far higher law, we can scarcely avoid remarking the analogy which they bear to several of the phenomena of nature.
The laws of animal life which regulate the caterpillar, seem totally distinct from those which, in the subsequent stage of its existence, govern the butterfly. The difference is still more remarkable in the transformations un- dergone by that class of animals which spend the first portion of their life beneath the sur- face of the waters, and the latter part as
44 ARGUMENT IN
inhabitants of air. It is true that the periods during which these laws exist are not, to our senses, enormous, hke the mechanical ones above mentioned ; but it cannot be doubted that, immeasurably more complex as they are, they were equally foreknown by their Author : and that the first creation of the egg of the moth, or the libellula, involved within its contrivance, as a necessary consequence, the Avhole of the subsequent transformations of every individual of their respective races.
In turning our views from these simple con- sequences of the juxtaposition of a few wheels, it is impossible not to perceive the parallel reasoning, as applied to the mighty and far more complex phenomena of nature. To call into existence all the variety of vegetable forms, as they become fitted to exist, by the successive adaptations of their parent earth, is undoubtedly a high exertion of creative power. When a rich vegetation has covered the globe, to create animals adapted to that clothing.
FAVOUR OF DESIGN. 45
which, deriving nourishment from its luxuri- ance, shall gladden the face of nature, is not only a high but a benevolent exertion of creative power. To change, from time to time, after lengthened periods, the races which exist, as altered physical circumstances may render their abode more or less congenial to their habits, by allowing the natural extinction of some races, and by a new creation of others more fitted to supply the place previously abandoned, is still but the exercise of the same benevolent power. To cause an alteration in those physical circumstances — to add to the comforts of the newly created animals — all these acts imply power of the same order, a perpetual and benevolent superintendence, to take advantage of altered circumstances, for the purpose of producing additional happiness.
But, to have foreseeuy at the creation of matter and of mind, that a period would ar- rive when matter, assuming its prearranged combinations, would become susceptible of
46
ARGUMENT IN
the support of vegetable forms; that these should in due time themselves supply the pabulum of animal existence ; that suc- cessive races of giant forms or of micro- scopic beings should at appointed periods necessarily rise into existence, and as inevi- tably yield to decay ; and that decay and death — the lot of each individual existence — should also act with equal power on the races which they constitute ; that the extinc- tion of every race should be as certain as the death of each individual ; and the advent of new genera be as inevitable as the destruc- tion of their predecessors ; — to have foreseen all these changes, and to have provided, by one comprehensive law, for all that should ever occur, either to the races themselves, to the individuals of which they are composed, or to the globe which they inhabit, manifests a degree of power and of knowledge of a far higher order.
The vast cycles in the geological changes
FAVOUR OF DESIGN. 47
that have taken place in the earth's surface, of which we have ample evidence, offer another analogy in nature to those mechanical changes of law from which we have endea- voured to extract a unit sufficiently large to serve as an imperfect measure for some of the simplest works of the Creator.
The gradual advance of Geology, during the last twenty years, to the dignity of a science, has arisen from the laborious and extensive collection of facts, and from the enlightened spirit in which the inductions founded on those facts have been deduced and discussed. To those who are unacquainted with this science, or indeed to any person not deeply versed in the history of this and kindred subjects, it is impossible to convey a just impression of the nature of that evidence by which a multitude of its conclusions are supported : — evidence in many cases so irresistible, that the records of the past ages, to which it refers, are traced in language more imperishable than that of
4 8 ARGUMENT IN
the historian of any human transactions ; the rehcs of those beings, entombed in the strata which myriads of centuries have heaped upon their graves, giving a present evidence of their past existence, with which no human testi- mony can compete. It is found that each additional step, in the grouping together of the facts of geology, confirms the view that the changes of our planet, since it has been the abode of man, is but as a page in the massive volumes of its history, every leaf of which, written in the same character, conveys to the decypherer the idea of a succession of the same causes acting with varying inten- sity, through unequal but enormous periods, each period apparently distinguished by the coming in or going out of new subsidiary laws, yet all submitted to some still higher con- dition, which has stamped the mark of unity on the series, and points to the conclusion that the minutest changes, as well as those transitions apparently the most abrupt, have throughout all time been the necessary, the
FAVOUR OF DESIGN. 49
inevitable consequences of some more com- prehensive law impressed on matter at the dawn of its existence.
50 ARGUMENT
CHAP. III.
ARGUMENT TO SHOW THAT THE DOCTRINES IN THE PRECEDING CHAPTER DO NOT LEAD TO FATALISM.
If all the combinations and modifications of matter can be supposed to be traced up to one general and comprehensive law, from which every visible form, both in the organic and inorganic world flows, as the necessary consequence of the first impression of that law upon matter, it might seem to follow that Fate or Necessity governs all things, and that the world around us may not be the result of a contriving mind working for a benevolent purpose.
AGALNST FATE. 51
Such, possibly, may be the first impression of this view of the subject ; but it is an er- roneous view, — one of those, perhaps, through which it is necessary to pass, in order to arrive at truth. Let us briefly review the labour which the human race has expended, in at- taining the hmited knowledge we possess. For about six thousand years man has claimed the earth as his heritage, and asserted his dominion over all other beings endued with life ; yet, during a large portion of that period, how comparatively small has been his mental improvement ! Until the invention of print- ing, the mass of mankind were in many re- spects almost the creatures of instinct. It is true, the knowledge possessed by each gene- ration, instead of being the gift of Nature, was derived from the instruction of their prede- cessors; but, how little were those lessons improved by repeated communication ! Trans- mitted most frequently by unenlightened in- structors, they might lose, but could rarely gain in value.
E 2
52
ARGUMENT
Before the invention of printing, acci- dental position determined the opinions and the knowledge of the great mass of mankind. Oral information being almost the only kind accessible, each man shared the opinions of his kindred and neighbours ; and truth, which is ever most quickly and most surely elicited by discussion, lost all those advantages which diversity of opinion always produces for it. The minds of individual men, however powerful, could address themselves only to a very small portion of their fellow men ; their influence was restricted by space and limited by time, and their highest powers were not stimulated into action by the knowledge that their reason- ings could have effect where their voices were unheard, or by the conviction that the truths they arrived at, and the discoveries they made, would extend beyond their country, and survive their age.
But, since the invention of printing, how different has been the position of mankind !
AGAINST FATE. 53
the nature of the instruction no longer de- pends entirely on the knowledge of the instructor. The village school-master com- municates to his pupils the power of using an instrument hy which not merely the best of their living countrymen, but the greatest and wisest men of all countries and all times, may become their instructors. Even the ele- mentary writings through which this art is taught, give to the pupil, not the sentiments of the teacher, but those which the public opinion of his countrymen esteems most fit for the be- ginner in knowledge. Thus the united opinions of multitudes of human minds are brought to bear even upon seemingly unimportant points.
If such is the effect of the invention of printing upon ordinary minds, its influence over those more highly endowed is far greater. To them the discussion of the conflicting opi- nions of different countries and distant ages, and the establishment of new truths, presents
54 ARGUMENT
a field of boundless and exalted ambition. Advancing beyond the knowledge of their neighbours and countrymen^ they may be ex- posed to those prejudices which result from opinions long stationary ; but encouraged by the approbation of the greatest of other na- tions, and the more enlightened of their ow^n, — knowing that time alone is wanting to complete the triumph of truth, they may accelerate the approaching dawn of that day which shall pour a flood of hght over the darkened intel- lects of their thankless countrymen — content themselves to exchange the hatred they expe- rience from the honest and the dishonest into- lerance of their contemporaries, for that higher homage, alike independent of space and of time, which their memory will for ever receive from the good and the gifted of all countries and all ages.
Until printing was very generally spread, civilisation scarcely advanced by slow and lan- guid steps ; since this art has become cheap.
AGAINST lATK.
55
its advances have been unparalleled, and its rate of progress vastly accelerated.
It has been stated by some, that the civili- sation of the Western World has resulted from its being the seat of the Christian religion : however much the mild tenor of its doctrines is calculated to assist in producing such an effect, that religion cannot but be injured by an unfounded statement. It is to the easy and cheap methods of communicating thought from man to man, which enable a country to sift, as it were, its whole people, and to produce, in its science, its literature, and its arts, not the brightest efforts of a limited class, but the highest exertions of the most powerful minds among a whole community ; — it is this which has given birth to the wide-spreading civilisa- tion of the present day, and which promises a futurity yet more prolific. Whoever is ac- quainted with the present state of science and the mechanical arts, and looks back over the inventions and civilisation which the fourteen
56 ARGUMENT
centuries subsequent to the introduction of Christianity have produced, and compares them with the advances made during the suc- ceeding four centuries following the invention of printing, will have no doubt as to the effec- tive cause.
It is during these last three or four centu- ries, that man, considered as a species, has commenced the development of his intellec- tual faculties — that he has emerged from a po- sition in which he was almost the creature of instinct, to a state in which every step in ad- vance facilitates the progress of his succes- sors. In the first period, arts were discovered by individuals, and lost to the race ; in the latter, the diffusion of ideas enabled the rea- soning of one class to unite with the observa- tions of another, and the most advanced point of one generation became the starting post of the next.
It is during this portion of our history that
AGAINST FATE. 57
man has become acquainted with his real posi- tion in the universe — that he has measured the distance from that which is to us the great fountain of hght and heat — that he has traced the orbits of earth's sister spheres, and calcu- lated the paths of all their dependent worlds — that he has arrived at the knowledge of a law — that of gravity, which appears to go- vern all matter, and whose remotest conse- quences, if first traced by his telescope, are found written in his theory ; or, if first pre- dicted by his theory, are verified by his obser- vations.
Simple as that law now appears, and beau- tifully in accordance with all the observations of past and of present times, consider what it has cost of intellectual study. Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Euler, Lagrange, Laplace, all the great names which have exalted the character of man, by carrying out trains of reasoning unparalleled in every other science ; these, and a host of others, each of whom might
5S
ARGUMENT
have been the Newton of another field, have all laboured to work out, the consequences which resulted from that single law which he discovered. All that the human mind has produced — the brightest in genius, or the most continuous in application, has been lavished on the details of the law of gravity.
Had that law been other than it is — had it been the inverse cube of the distance, for example, it would still have required an equal expense of genius and of perseverance to have worked out its details. But, between the laws represented by the inverse square, and the inverse cube of the distance, there are inter- posed an infinite number of other laws, each of which might have been the basis of a system requiring the most extensive know- ledge to trace out its consequences. Between every law which can be expressed by whole numbers, whether it be direct or inverse, an infinity of others can still be interposed. All these might be again combined by two,
AGAINST FATE. 59
by three, or by any other combinations, and new systems might be imagined,* submitted to such laws. Thus, another infinity of laws, of a far higher order — in fact, of an infinitely higher order — might again be added to the list. And this might still be increased by every other combination, of which such laws admit, besides that by addition, to which we have already alluded, thus forming an infinity itself of so high an order, that it is difficult to conceive. Man has, as yet, no proof of the impossibility of the existence of any of these laws. Each might, for any reason we can assign, be the basis of a creation different from our own.
It is at this point that skill and knowledge re-enter the argument, and banish for ever the dominion of chance. The Being who called
* Even beyond this, every law so imagined might be interrupted by any discontinuous function ; and thus be made to agree, for any period, with laws of simpler form, and yet deviate, in one single, or in a certain limited num- ber of cases, and then agree with it for ever.
60 ARGUMENT
into existence this creation, of which we are parts, must have chosen the present form, the present laws, in preference to the infinitely infinite variety which he might have willed into existence. He must have known and fore- seen all, even the remotest consequences of every one of those laws, to have penetrated but a little way into one of w^hich has ex- hausted the intellect of our whole species.
But, if such is the view we must take of the knowledge of the Creator, when contemplating the laws of inanimate matter — laws into whose consequences it has cost us such accumulated labour to penetrate — what language can w^e speak, when we consider that the laws which connect matter with animal life may be as in- finitely varied as those which regulate material existence ? The little we know, might, per- haps, lead us to infer a far more unlimited field of choice. The chemist has reduced all the materials of the earth with which we are acquainted, to about fifty simple bodies ;
AGAINST FATE. 61
but the zoologist can make no such reductions in his science. He must claim for one scarcely noticed class — that of intestinal parasites — about thirty thousand species ; and, not to mention the larger classes of animals, who shall number the species of infusoria in living waters, still less those which are extinct, and whose scarcely visible relics are contained within the earth, in almost mountain masses.*
In absolute ignorance of any — even the smallest link of those chains which bind life to matter, or that still more miraculous one, which connects mind to both, we can only pursue our path by the feeble light of analogy, and humbly hope that the Being, whose power
* Professor Ehrenberg, of Berlin, has discovered that the tripoli employed in that city for polishing metals, which is dug up at Bilin, in Bohemia, consists almost entirely of the siliceous remains of infusoria, of a species so minute, that about 41,000 millions of them weigh 220 grains, and oc- cupy the space of a cubic inch. The reader will find a translation of the highly interesting papers of Professor Ehrenberg, in the third number of the " Scientific Me- moirs," published by Mr. R. Taylor.
62 ARGUMENT AGAINST FATE.
and benevolence are unbounded, may enable us, in some further stage of our existence, to read another page in the history of his mighty works.
Enough, however, and more than enough, may be gathered even from our imperfect acquaintance with matter, and some few of its laws, to prove the unbounded knowledge which must have preceded their organization.
ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION. 63
CHAP. IV.
ON THE ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION, IN THE FIRST CHAPTER OF GENESIS.
A STRANGE and singular argument has fre- quently been brought against the truth of the facts presented to us by Geology, — facts which every instructed person may confirm by the evidence of his senses. It has been stated that they cannot be true ; because, if admitted, they lead inevitably to the conclusion, that the earth has existed for an enormous period, extending, perhaps, over millions of years ; whereas, it was supposed, from the history of the creation as delivered by Moses, that the
64 MOSAIC ACCOUNT
earth was first created about six thousand years ago.
A different interpretation has been lately put upon that passage of the sacred writings ; and, according to the highest authorities of the present time, it was not the intention of the writer of the book of Genesis to assign this date to the creation of our globe, but only to that of its most favoured inhabitants.
Now, it is obvious that additional observations, and another advance in science, may at no distant period render necessary another inter- pretation of the Mosaic narrative ; and this again, at a more remote time, may be superseded by one more in accordance with the existing knowledge of that day. And thus, the authority of Scripture will be gradually undermined by the weak though well-intentioned efforts of its friends in its support. For it is clear that when a work, translated by persons most highly instructed in its language, and seeking.
OF THE CREATION. 65
in plainness and sincerity, to understand its true meaning, admits of such discordant inter- pretations, it can have httle authority as a history of the past, or a guide to the future.
It is time, therefore, to examine this ques- tion by another hght, and to point out to those who support what is called the literal interpretation of Scripture, the precipice to which their doctrines, if true, would inevitably lead ; and to show, not by the glimmerings of elaborate criticism, but by the plainest prin- ciples of common sense, that there exists no such fatal collision between the words of Scrip- ture and the facts of nature.
And first, let us examine what must of necessity be the conclusion of any candid mind from the mass of evidence presented to it. Looking solely at the facts in which all capable of investigation agree — facts which it is needless to recite, they having been so fully and ably stated in the works of Mr. Lyell and
F
66
MOSAIC ACCOUNT
Dr. Buckland, — we there see, and with no theoretic eye, the remains of animated beings, more and more differing from existing races, as we descend in the series of strata. Not merely are the petrified bones preserved, displaying marks of the insertion of every muscle neces- sary for the movement of the living animal, but in some cases we discover even the secre- tions of their organs, prepared either for nou- rishment or for defence. Almost every stratum we pause to examine, affords indubitable evi- dence of having, at some former period, existed for ages at the bottom of some lake or estuary, some inland sea, or some extensive ocean teeming with animal existence, or of having been the surface of a country covered with vegetation, which perished and was renewed at distant and successive periods.
Those, however, who, without the know- ledge which enables them to form an opinion on the subject, feel any latent wish that this evidence should be overthrown, would do
OF TIIK CREATION. G?
well to remember that geology also furnishes strong evidence in favour of the much more direct statement of Moses, as to the recent creation of man. And although we must ever feel a certain degree of caution in admitting negative evidence as conclusive ; yet, in the present instance, the multitude of fossil bones which have been discovered, and which, when examined by persons dult/ qualified for the task, have been uniformly pronounced to be those of various tribes of animals, and not those of the human race, undoubtedly affords strong corroborative evidence in confirmation of the Mosaic account.
In truth, the mass of evidence which combines to prove the great antiquity of the earth, is so irresistible, and so unshaken by any opposing facts, that none but those who are alike inca- pable of observing the facts and of appreciating the reasoning, can for a moment conceive the present state of its surface to have been the result of only six thousand years of existence.
F 2
68 MOSAIC ACCOUNT
What, then, have those accomplished who have restricted the Mosaic account of creation to that diminutive period, which is, as it were, but a span in the duration of the earth's ex- istence, and who have imprudently rejected the testimony of the senses, when opposed to their philological criticisms ? Undoubtedly, if they have succeeded in convincing either them- selves or others, that one side of the question must be given up as untenable ; those who are so convinced are bound to reject that which rests on testimony, not that which is supported by still existing facts. The very argument which Protestants have opposed to the doctrine of transubstantiation,* would, if
* The historian of the " Decline of the Roman Empire," carried the argument yet further ; —
*' I still remember (he remarks) my solitary transport at " the discovery of a philosophical argument against tran- *' substantiation ; that the text of Scripture which seems to " indicate the real presence is attested only by a single " sense — our sight ; while the real presence itself is disproved " bv three of our senses — the sight, the touch, the taste." — Gibbon s Memoirs of his Life, vol. i. p. 58.
01' THE CREATION.
69
theii' vlex& of the case were correct, be equally irresistible against the book of Genesis.
But let us consider what would be the con- clusion of every reasonable being in a parallel case. Let us imagine a manuscript written three thousand years ago, and professing to be a revelation from the Deity, in which it was stated that the colour of the paper of the very book now in the reader's hands is black, and that the colour of the ink in the charac- ters which he is now reading is white : — with that reasonable doubt of his own individual faculties which would become the inquirer into the truth of a statement said to be derived from so high an origin, he would ask of all those around him, whether to their senses the paper appeared to be black and the ink to be white. If he found the senses of other individuals agree with his own, then he would undoubt- edly pronounce the alleged revelation a for- gery, and those who propounded it to be either deceived or deceivers. He would rightly im-
70 MOSAIC ACCOUNT
pute the attempted deceit to moral turpitude, to the gross ignorance or to the interested mo- tives of the supporters of it ; and he certainly would not commit the impiety of supposing the Deity to have wrought a miraculous change upon the senses of our whole species, and to demand their belief in a fact directly opposed to those senses — thus throwing doubt upon • every conclusion of reason which related to external objects, and amongst others, upon the very evidence by which the authenticity of that questionable manuscript was itself supported, and even of its very existence when before their eyes.
Thus, then, had those who attempt to show that the account of the creation, in the book of Genesis, is contradicted by the discoveries of modern science, succeeded, they would have destroyed the testimony of Moses — they would have uncanonised one portion of Scripture, and by implication have thrown doubt on the re- mainder. But minds which thus failed to trace
OF THE CREATION. 71
out the necessary consequences of their own argument, were not Hkely to have laid very secure foundations for the basis on which it rested ; and I shall presently prove that the contradiction they have imagined can have no real existence ; and that whilst the testimony of Moses, remains unimpeached, we may also be permitted to confide in the testimony of our senses.
72 MOSAIC ACCOUNT
CHAP. V.
FURTHER VIEW OF THE SAME SUBJECT.
Before entering on the main argument it may be remarked, that the plainest and most natural view of the language employed by the sacred historian of the earth is, that his ex- pressions ought to be received by us in the sense in which they were understood by the people to whom he addressed himself. If, when speaking of the creation, instead of using the terms light and water, he had spoken of the former as a wave, and of tlie latter as the union of two invisible airs, he would assuredly have
OF THE CREATION. 73
been perfectly unintelligible to bis country- men. At the distance of above three thousand years his writings would just have begun to be comprehended, and possibly three thousand years hence those views may be as inappli- cable to the then existing state of human knowledge as they would have been when the first chapter of Genesis was written.
Those, however, who attempt to disprove the facts presented by observation, by placing them in opposition to revelation, have mistaken the very groundwork of the question. The revelation of Moses itself rests, and must ne- cessarily rest, on testimony. Moses, the author of the oldest of the sacred books, lived about fifteen hundred years before the christian era, or about three thousand three hundred years ago. The oldest manuscripts of the Pentateuch at present known, appear to have been written about 900 years ago.* These were copied from
* Mr. Home, in the Introduction to the Critical Study of
74
MOSAIC ACCOUiNT
others of older date, and those again might probably, if their history were known, be traced up through a few transcripts to the original
the Holy Scriptures, states, that the total number of He- brew MSS. collated by Dr. Kennicott, for his critical edi- tion of the Hebrew Bible, was about 630. In that work, Mr. Home gives an account of ten of the most ancient of these MSS. : three of which contain the first chapter of Genesis, viz. : —
No. 4. Codex Caesenae, in the Malatesta Library at
Bolosrna, written about the end of the eleventh century.
No. 6. Codex Mediolanensis, written towards the close
of the twelfth century. " The beginning of the book of
'' Genesis, and the end of Leviticus and Deuteronomy,
** have been written by a later hand."
No. 8. Codex Parisiensis, 27, about the commencement
of the twelfth century. No. 10. Codex Parisiensis, 24, written at the beginning of the twelfth century.
In the same work is an account of six of the most ancient of the four hundred and seventy-nine collated by M. De Rossi. Two of these contain the first chapter of Ge- nesis ; and the date of both is about the end of the eleventh or beginning of the twelfth century.
Of the Manuscripts of the Samaritan versions of the Pen- tateuch, cited in the same work— one the Codex 197, in the Ambrosian Library at Milan — Dr. Kennicott thinks that it is certainly not later than the tenth century.
or THE CREA'IION.
75
author ; but no part of this is revelation ; it is testimony. Although the matter which the book contains was revealed to Moses, the fact that what we now receive as revelation is the same with that originally communicated revelation, is entirely dependent on testimony. Admitting, however, the full weight of that evidence, corroborated as it is by the Samaritan version ; nay, even supposing that we now possessed the identical autograph of the book of Genesis by the hand of its author, a most important question remains, — What means do we possess of translating it ?
In similar cases we avail ourselves of the works of the immediate predecessors, and of the contemporaries of the writer ; but here we are acquainted with no work of any prede- cessor,— of no writing of any contemporary ; and we do not possess the works of any writers in the same language, even during se- veral succeeding centuries, if we except some few of the sacred books. How, then, is it
76 MOSAIC ACCOUNT
possible to satisfy our minds of the minute shades of meaning of words, perhaps employed popularly ; or, if they were employed in a stricter and more philosophical sense, where are the contemporary philosophical writings from which their accurate interpretation may be gained ?
The extreme difficulty of such an inquiry will be made apparent by imagining a parallel case. Let us suppose ail writings in the English, and indeed in all other languages pre- vious to the time of Shakespeare, to have been destroyed ; — let us imagine one manuscript of his plays to remain, but not a vestige of the works of any of his contemporaries; and further, suppose, the whole of the succeeding works of English literature to be annihilated nearly up to the present time. Under such circumstances, what would be our knowledge of Shakespeare ? We should undoubtedly understand the ge- neral tenor and the plots of his plays. We should read the language of all his characters ;
OF Tin: CKI.ATION.
77
and viewing it generally, we might even be said to understand it. But how many words connected with the customs, habits, and man- ners of the time must, under such circum- stances, necessarily remain unknown to us ! Still further, if any question arose, requiring for its solution a knowledge of the minute shades of meaning of words now long obsolete, or of terms supposed to be used in a strict or philosophical sense, how completely unsatis- factory must our conclusions remain ! Such I conceive to be the view which common sense bids us take of the interpretation of the book of Genesis. The language of the Hebrews, in times long subsequent to the date of that book, may not have so far changed as to pre- vent us from rightly understanding generally the history it narrates ; but there appears to be no reasonable ground for venturing to pro- nounce with confidence on the minute shades of meaning of allied words, and on such foun- dations to support an argument opposed to the evidence of our senses.
78 MOSAIC ACCOUNT
I sliould have hesitated in offering these remarks respecting the right interpretation of the Mosaic account of the creation, had the ar- gument depended on any acquaintance with the language in which the sacred volume is writ- ten, or on any refinements of criticism, had I possessed that knowledge ; but in estimating its validity, or in supplying a more cogent argument, I intreat the reader to consider well the difficulties which it is necessary to meet.
1st. The Church of England, if we may judge by the writings of those placed in autho- rity, has hitherto considered it to have been expressly stated in the book of Genesis, that the earth was created about six thousand years ago.
2dly. Those observers and philosophers who have spent their lives in the study of Geology, have arrived at the conclusion that there exists irresistible evidence, that the date
OF THE CREATION. 79
of the earth's first formation is far anterior to the epoch supposed to be assigned to it by Moses ; and it is now admitted by all compe- tent persons, that the formation even of those strata which are nearest the surface must have occupied vast periods — probably millions of years — in arriving at their present state.
3dly. Many of the most distinguished mem- bers of the Church of England now distinctly and formally admit the fact of such a length- ened existence of the earth we inhabit ; for it is so stated in the eighth Bridgewatei^ Treatise, a work written by the Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford — himself holding an office of dignity in that Church, and expressly appointed to write upon that subject, by the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Bishop of London.
4thly, Tlie Professor of Hebrew at the same University has proposed a new interpretation of those passages of the Book of Genesis,
80 MOSAIC ACCOUNT
which were hitherto supposed to be adverse to the now admitted facts.
Such being the present state of the case ; — it surely becomes a duty to require a very high degree of evidence, before we again claim au- thority for the opinion that the book of Genesis contains such a precise account of the work of the creation, that we may venture to appeal to it as a refutation of observed facts. The history of the past errors of our parent Church sup- plies us with a lesson of caution which ought not to be lost by its reformed successors. The fact that the venerable Galileo was com- pelled publicly to deny, on bended knee, a truth of which he had the most convincing de- monstration, remains as a beacon to all after time, and ought not to be without its influence on the inquiring minds of the present day.
If the explanation offered by the Pro- fessor of Hebrew be admitted, those who adhere to it must still have some misgivings
OF THE CREATION. 81
as to the effect of new discoveries in nature causing continual occasion for amended trans- lations of various texts ; whereas, should the view which has been advocated in this chap- ter be found correct, instead of fearing that the future progress of science may raise additional difficulties in the way of revealed religion, we are at once relieved from all doubt on that subject.
G
82
THE DESIRE
CHAP. VI.
OF THE DESIRE OF IMMORTALITY.
That wish, universally expressed in every variety of form, of remaining in the memory of our fellow-creatures after our passage from the present scene, has rightly been adduced as evidence of the desire of immortality, and has sometimes been explained as being founded on an instinctive belief that we are destined to it by the Creator.
The hope of remaining embalmed in the fond recollection of those we held most dear in life, and even of being remembered by our
OF IMMORTALITY. 83
more immediate descendants, has something in it nearly connected with self; but the wish for more extended reputation, — the desire that our name should pass in after times from mouth to mouth, cherished and admired by those whose applause is won by no personal recollections : or the still more fervent aspira- tions, that we may stamp indelibly on the age we live in some mark of our individual exist- ence which shall form an epoch in the history of man : these hopes, these longings, receive no interpretation from the all-dominant prin- ciple of self ; unless indeed we suppose the sentient principle of our nature not merely existing, but also conscious of, and gratified by, the earthly immortality it had achieved. Yet the more distant and the higher the objects we pursue, the less is it possible to suppose the mind, so occupied on earth, can, in another stage of its existence, derive pleasure from such perceptions.
To support this opinion, it is only necessary
G 2
84 THE DESIRE
to examine the states of mind in the various classes of the aspirants after fame .
Through every form of society, and through every rank of each, may be traced this uni- versal passion. Examine the most highly civi- lized inhabitants of earth ; search through it for the most cultivated and refined in taste ; for the most sagacious in penetrating the pas- sions of mankind, the most skilful in wielding them, or the most powerful in intellectual might. Taste, feeling, passion, ambition, ge- nius, severed or combined, equally yield obedi-
OF IMMORTALITY. 85
ence to its sway, and present, under different appearances, the effects of its all-controlling power.
Look at the highest productions of the poet or the novelist. By connecting his story with the scenery, the traditions, or the history of his country, he may ensure for it a local inte- rest, a domestic and transitory popularity ; but it is that deeper penetration into the secrets of the human heart, which enables him to select from amongst the same materials, those feelings that are common to the race which
86 THE DESIRE
have, as occasion called them forth, appeared, and will continue to reappear, as long as the same affections and passions shall continue to animate and agitate our frames.
From the examination of these its highest forms, we may gather some common principles, and be enabled to perceive that the love of fame is far different from that passion for vul- gar applause with which it is too frequently
OF IMMORTALITY. 87
confounded. We may learn, that the higher the intellectual powers devoted to the task, the more remote the period for which ambition delights to raise its far distant altar.
88 ON TIME.
CHAP. VII.
ON TIME.
Time and change are great, only with re- ference to the faculties of the beings which note them. The insect of an hour, which flutters, during its transient existence, in an atmosphere of perfume, would attribute un- changing duration to the beautiful flowers of the cistus, whose petals cover the dewy
ON TIME.
89
grass but a few hours after it has received the Hfeless body of the gnat. These flowers, could they reflect, might contrast their trans- itory hves with the prolonged existence of their greener neighbours. The leaves them- selves, counting their brief span by the lapse of a few moons, might regard as almost indefinitely extended the duration of the com- mon parent of both leaf and flower. The lives of individual trees are lost in the con- tinued destruction and renovation which take place in forest masses. Forests themselves, starved by the exhaustion of the soil, or con- sumed by fire, succeed each other in slow gradation. A forest of oaks waves its lux- uriant branches over a spot which has been fertilized by the ashes of a forest of pines. These periods again merge into other and still longer cycles, during which the latest of a thousand forests sinks beneath the waves, from the gradual subsidence of its parent earth ; or in which extensive inundations, by accumulating the silt of centuries, gradually convert the
90 ON TIME.
living trunks into their stony resemblances. Stratum upon stratum subsides in comminuted particles, and is accumulated in the depths of the ocean, whence they again arise, consoli- dated by pressure or by fire, to form the con- tinents and mountains of a new creation.
Such, in endless succession, is the history of the changes of the globe we dwell upon ; and human observation, aided by human reason, has as yet discovered few signs of a be- ginning— no symptom of an end. Yet, in that more extended view which recognises our planet as one amongst the attendants of a central luminary ; that sun itself the soul, as it were, of vegetable and animal existence, but an insignificant individual among its congeners of the milky way : — when we re- member that that cloud of light, gleaming with its myriad systems, is but an isolated nebula amongst a countless host of rivals, which the starry firmament surrounding us on all sides, presents to us in every varied
ON TIME. 91
form ; — some as uncondensed masses of atte- nuated light; — some as having, in obedience to attractive forces, assumed a spherical figure ; others, as if farther advanced in the history of their fate, having a denser central nucleus surrounded by a more diluted light, spreading into such vast spaces, that the w^hole of our own nebula would be lost in it : — others there are, in which the apparently unformed and irregular mass of nebulous light is just curd- ling, as it were, into separate systems ; w^hilst many present a congeries of distinct points of light, each, perhaps, the separate luminary of a creation more glorious than our own ; — when the birth, the progress, and the history of sidereal systems are considered, we require some other unit of time than even that com- prehensive one which astronomy has unfolded to our view. Minute and almost infinitesimal as is the time which comprises the history of our race compared with that which records the history of our system, the space even of
92 ON TIME.
this latter period forms too limited a stan- dard wherewith to measure the footmarks of eternity.
93
CHAP. VIIL
ARGUMENT FROM LAWS INTERMITTING ON THE NATURE OF MIRACLES.
The object of the present chapter is to show that miracles are not deviations from the laws assigned by the Almighty for the government of matter and of mind ; but that they are the exact fulfilment of much more extensive laws than those we suppose to exist. In fact, if we were endued with acuter senses and higher reasoning faculties, they are the very points we should seek to observe, as the test of any hypothesis we had been led to frame concerning the nature of
94 LAWS INTERMITTING.
those laws. Even with our present imperfect faculties we frequently arrive at the highest confirmation of our views of the laws of na- ture, by tracing their actions under singular circumstances.
The mode by which I propose to arrive at these conclusions is, by appealing to the judg- ment which each individual will himself form, when examining that piece of mere human mechanism, to which the argument so fre- quently compels me to advert. If he shall agree with me, that the second of the two views presented to him exhibits a higher de- gree of knowledge, and a higher exertion of power, than the first, he must inevitably con- clude, that the view here taken of the nature of a miracle, assigns a far higher degree of power and knowledge to the Deity.
Let the reader again imagine himself sit- ting before the calculating engine, and let him again observe and ascertain, by lengthened
NATURE OF MIRACLES. 95
induction, the nature of the law it is com- puting. Let him imagine that he has seen the changes wrought on its face by the lapse of thousands of years, and that, without one soli- tary exception, he has found the engine regis- ter the series of square numbers. Suppose, now, the maker of that machine to say to the observer, '^ I will, by moving a certain mecha- '' nism, which is invisible to you, cause the *^ engine to make a cube number instead of a *^ square one, and then to revert to its former *' course of square numbers;" the observer would be inclined to attribute to him a degree of power but little superior to that which was necessary to form the original engine.
But, let the same observer, after the same lapse of time — the same amount of uninter- rupted experience of the uniformity of the law of square numbers, hear the maker of that en- gine say to him — '* The next number which " shall appear on those wheels, and which *' you expect to find a square number, shall
96 LAWS INTERMITTING.
' not be such. When the machine was ori- ' ginally ordered to make these calculations, ^ I impressed on it a law, which should coin- ' cide with that of square numbers in every ^ case, except the one which is now about to ' appear, after which no future exception can ' ever occur ; but the unvarying law of the ' squares shall be pursued until the machine ' itself perishes from decay."
Undoubtedly the observer would ascribe a greater degree of power to the artist who thus willed that event at the distance of ages before its arrival.
If the contriver of the engine then explain to him, that, by the very structure of it, he has power to order any number of such apparent deviations from its laws to occur at any future periods, however remote, and that each of these may be of a different kind ; and, if he also inform him, that he gave it that structure in order to meet events, which he foresaw must
NATURE OF MIRACLES. 07
happen at those respective periods, there can be no doubt that the observer would ascribe to the inventor far higher knowledge than if, when those events severally occurred, he were to intervene, and temporarily alter the calcu- lations of the machine.
If, besides this, he were so far to explain the structure of the engine that the observer could himself, by some simple process, such as the mere moving of a bolt, call into action those apparent deviations whenever certain com- binations were presented to his eye; if he were thus to impart a power of predicting such excepted cases, dependent on the will, although otherwise beyond the limits of the observer's power and knowledge, such a struc- ture would be admitted as evidence of a still more skilful contrivance.
The engine which, in a former chapter, I introduced to the reader, possesses these powers. It may be set, so as to obey by any
H
98 LAWS INTERMITTING.
given law ; and, at any periods, however re- mote, to make one or more seeming exceptions to that law. It is, however, to be observed, that the apparent law which the spectator ar- rived at, by an almost unlimited induction, is not the full expression of the law by which the machine acts ; and that the excepted case is as absolutely and irresistibly the necessary consequence of its primitive adjustment, as is any individual calculation amongst the count- less multitude.
When the construction of that engine was first attempted, I did not seek to give to it the power of making calculations so far be- yond the reach of mathematical analysis as these appear to be : nor can I now foresee a probable period at which they may become practically available to human wants. I had determined to invest the invention with a de- gree of generality which should include a wide range of mathematical power ; and I was well aware that the mechanical generalisations
NATURE OF MIRACLES. 99
I had organised contained within them much more than I had leisure to study, and some things which will probably remain unpro- ductive to a far distant day.
Amongst those combinations which I was induced to examine, I observed the powers I have now recorded ; and the reflections they produced in my own mind, impelled me to pur- i p
sue them for a time. If the reader agree with ^^^4^ . me in opinion, that these speculations have led / r to a more exalted view of the great Author of . ^
the universe than any we yet possessed, he ^,| wv^^/<r» ^ must also have arrived at the conclusion, that ^ , * .^ , the study of the most abstract branch of prac- ^^ ^ ^ tical mechanics, combined with that of the ^ most abstruse portions of mathematical science, has no tendency to incapacitate the human '' ^^ c^«^4^: mind from the perception of the evidences of ^/^ y^^- natural religion ; and that even those very ^
sources themselves furnish arguments which ^t<>^v-^^ have opened more splendid views of the gran- rK^^
deur of creation than any which the sciences
H 2
100 LAWS INTERMITTING.
of observation or of physics have yet sup- plied.
It may not, perhaps, be without its use to suggest another illustration respecting the na- ture of miracles. It is known that mathema- tical laws are sometimes expressed by curves. The figure 1 represents a re-entering curve of four dimensions, whose law of formation is given in the note.* A slight change in the na- ture of the constants makes it assume the form of fig. 2, which is still a continuous curve ; but a further change of the constants causes it to have two ovals, quite disconnected from the larger portion ; and, as the constants again alter, these ovals are reduced to points.
* The equation
2/'' — 4 y^ = — ax!^ H- hx^ + cx^ -\- dx -\- e expresses several figures of an oval form, according to the nature of the roots of the equation,
— ax^ + hx^ '\-cx^ -\- dx -\- e=^o. If its two lesser roots become imaginary, the curves, figures 1, 2, 3, are produced.
NATURE OF MIRACLES.
101
Fig. I.
Fig. 2.
/
Fig.S.
a
Fig. 4.
NATURE OF MIRACLES.
101
In all four cases, every point in each branch of the curve obeys the same general law. The points, P and Q, invisible to the eye, are yet detected by mathematical analysis, and fulfil as precisely the original equation as any of the infinite number of other points, which consti- tute the rest of the curve. These points might be situated on the curve itself, and they are well known to mathematicians. It is to these singular points, which really fulfil the law of the curve, but which present to those who only judge of them by the organ of sight an apparent discontinuity, that I wish to call the attention, as offering an illustration of the doctrine here explained respecting miracles.
It has been remarked, in the beginning of the present chapter, that it is to the singular points — to those points of such infinitely rare occurrence in a curve — that we frequently have recourse, as the test of our theories, for ex- plaining the phenomena of nature.
104 LAWS INTERMITTING.
The existence, under peculiar circumstances, of conical refraction, was predicted by Sir W. Hamilton ; and, from an analytical investiga- tion into the nature of the curve surface, which represents the form of the lurainiferous wave within the crystal, he ascertained that it had four conoidal cusps, at each of which there were, consequently, an infinite number of tangent planes. The course of the refracted ray being determined by the tangent plane to the wave surface, it followed that a single ray within the crystal, transmitted in the direction of the line joining two opposite cusps, corresponded to an infinite number of refracted rays without, con- stituting a refracted cone.
The second case of conical refraction, pre- dicted by Sir William Hamilton, depended on another mathematical fact — namely, that the wave surface is touched in an infinite number of points, constituting a small circle of contact, by a single plane parallel to one of the circu- lar sections of the surface of elasticity.
NATURE OF MIRACLES. 105
Professor Lloyd undertook to make the very delicate experiments required for this most interesting subject. Of the great importance of this investigation. Professor Lloyd was fully aware, for he remarks —
'' Here, then, are two singular and unex- " pected consequences of the undulatory theory, *' not only unsupported by any facts hitherto observed, but even opposed to all the analo- gies derived from experience. If confirmed "by experiment, they would furnish new and '' almost convincing proofs of that theory ; *' and, if disproved, on the other hand, it is " evident that the theory must be abandoned " or modified.*
On examining the first of these cases, expe- rimentally, the fact of conical refraction was fully established. But a new result now pre- sented itself: the rays of light thus conically
* Trans, of Royal Irish Academy, Vol. XVII.
€(
((
106 LAWS INTERMITTING.
refracted were found to be polarized ; and it was observed^ that ''the angle between the " planes of polarization of any two rays of '' the cone was half the angle between the '' planes, containing the rays themselves, and '' the axis."
This new law, thus approximately obtained by experiment, led the observer back to the theory ; and, on a further examination, he de- tected in that theory the very law he had just discovered by observation.
The second case of conical refraction re- quired experiments of a still more delicate nature. They were, however, made, and suc- ceeded equally. The conically refracted ray was found to be polarised, according to the law which, in this instance, analysis had predicted ; and, to complete the triumph of this union of theory and experiment, the measures in both cases, when made under proper circumstances, accorded with the theoretical conclusions.
NATUllE^ OF MIRACLES. 107
within such limits as might be fairly attributed to the necessary errors of observation.
It is worthy of remark, that, at first, two facts presented themselves, which seemed at variance with the theory. In the first place, the emergent rays formed a sohd cone, instead of a conical surface ; and, in the second place, the calculated angle, subtended by the sides of the cone, was only one half the observed angle. Both the facts were shown to depend upon the size of the aperture, and to arise from the rays which were inclined at small angles to the single theoretical direction. When the aper- ture was diminished, so as to be vei^y small, (the case calculated by Sir William Hamilton,) then the cone of light became a conical surface, and the observed angle was the same as the calcu- lated one.*
* Those who are acquainted with the history of astronomy, cannot fail to recall a parallel discrepancy between observa- tion and calculation in the theory of gravity. It appeared to result from that law, that the motion of the moon's
108 NATURE OF MIRACLES.
apogee was only one half of what observation proved it to be ; and it is singular that Euler, D'Alembert, and Clairaut arrived, by different methods, at the same erroneous result ; and the truth of the great law of gravity appeared for a time to be doubtful. Clairaut, however, having assumed that the law of gravity contained a term only sensible at small distances (such as that of the moon), re-calculated the ques- tion, and finding it necessary, in consequence of this terra, to push his approximation further than he had done, arrived at the conclusion, that the co-efficient of the new term va- nished ; and also, that the simple law of the inverse square of the distance, when the approximations were sufficiently pursued, gave the whole motions which observations had discovered.
PERMANENT IMPRESSION OF WORDS. 109
CHAP. IX.
ON THE PERMANENT IMPRESSION OF OUR WORDS AND ACTIONS ON THE GLOBE WE INHABIT.
The principle of the equality of action and reaction, when traced through all its conse- quences, opens views which will appear to many persons most unexpected.
The pulsations of the air, once set in motion by the human voice, cease not to exist with the sounds to which they gave rise. Strong and audible as they may be in the immediate neighbourhood of the speaker, and at the immediate moment of utterance, their quickly
110 THE PERMANENT IMPRESSION
attenuated force soon becomes inaudible to human ears. The motions they have impressed on the particles of one portion of our atmo- sphere, are communicated to constantly in- creasing numbers, but the quantity of motion measured in the same direction receives no addition. Each atom loses as much as it gives, and regains again fiom others, portions of those motions which they in turn give up.
The vs^aves of air thus raised, perambulate the earth and ocean's surface, and in less than twenty hours every atom of its atmosphere takes up the altered movement due to that infinitesimal portion of the primitive motion which has been conveyed to it through count- less channels, and which must continue to in- fluence its path throughout its future exist- ence.*'
* La courbe decrite par une simple molecule d'air ou vapeurs est reglee d'une maniere aussi certain que les orbites planetaires : il n'y a de difference entre elles, que
OF OUR WOllDS. Ill
But these aerial pulses, unseen by the keenest eye, unheard by the acutest ear, un- perceived by human senses, are yet demon- strated to exist by human reason ; and, in some few and hmited instances, by calling to our aid the most refined and comprehensive in- strument of human thought, their courses are traced and their intensities are measured. If man enjoyed a larger command over mathe- matical analysis, his knowledge of these mo- tions would be more extensive ; but a being possessed of the unbounded knowledge of that science, would trace every the minutest conse- quences of that primary impulse. Such a being, however far exalted above our race, would yet be immeasurably below even our conception of infinite intelligence ; yet by him, supposing the original conditions of each atom of the atmosphere, as well as all the extraneous causes acting upon it to be given, its future and inevitable path would be clearly traced ; and
celle qu'y met notre ignorance. — La Place^ Theorie Ana- lytique des Probabilites. Int. p. iv.
112 THE PERMANENT IMPRESSION
supposing the interference also of no new causes, the circumstances of the future history of the whole of the earth's atmosphere would be distinctly seen, and might be absolutely predicted for any even the remotest point of time. *
Let us imagine a being, invested with such knowledge, to arrive at the predicted moment. If any the slightest deviation exists, he will immediately read in its existence the action of a new cause ; and, through the aid of the same analysis, tracing this discordance back to its source, he would become aware of the time of its commencement, and the point of space at which it originated.
Thus considered, what a strange chaos is this wide atmosphere we breathe! Every atom impressed with good and with ill, re- tains at once the motions which philosophers
* See Note C in the Appendix.
OF OUR WORDS. 113
and sages have imparted to it, mixed and combined in ten thousand ways with all that is worthless and base. The air itself is one vast library, on whose pages are for ever written all that man has ever said or even whispered. There, in their mutable but unerring charac- ters, mixed with the earliest, as well as the latest sighs of mortality, stand for ever re- corded, vows unredeemed, promises unfulfilled, perpetuating in the united movements of each particle, the testimony of man's changeful will.
But if the air we breathe is the never-failing historian of the sentiments we have uttered, earth, air, and ocean, are in like manner the eternal witnesses of the acts we have done. The same principle of the equality of action and reaction applies to them : whatever motion is communicated to any of their particles, is trans- mitted to all around it, the share of each being diminished by their number, and depending jointly on the number and position of those
I
IH THE PERMANENT IMPRESSION
acted upon by the original source of disturbance. The waves of air, although in many instances sensible to the organs of hearing, are only ren- dered visible to the eye by peculiar contriv- ances ; whilst those of water offer to the sense of sight the most beautiful illustration of the transmission of motion. Every one who has thrown a pebble into the still waters of a shel- tered pool, has seen the circles it has raised gradually expanding in size, and as uniformly diminishing in distinctness. He may have ob- served the reflection of those waves from the edges of the pool. He may also have noticed the perfect distinctness with which two, three, or more series of waves each pursues its own unimpeded course, when diverging from two, three, or more centres of disturbance. He may have observed, that in such cases the particles of water where the waves intersect each other, partake of the movements due to each series.
No motion impressed by natural causes, or by human agency, is ever obliterated. The
OP OUR WORDS. 115
ripple on the ocean's surface caused by a gentle breeze, or the still water which marks the more immediate track of a ponderous vessel gliding with scarcely expanded sails over its bosom, are equally indelible. The momentary waves raised by the passing gale, apparently born but to die on the spot which saw their birth, leave behind them an endless progeny, which, reviv- ing with diminished energy in other seas, and visiting a thousand shores, reflected from each and perhaps again partially concentrated, pursue their ceaseless course till ocean be itself anni- hilated.
The track of every canoe, of every vessel which has yet disturbed the surface of the ocean, whether impelled by manual force or elemental power, remains for ever registered in the future movement of all succeeding par- ticles which may occupy its place. The furrow which it left is, indeed, instantly filled up by the closing waters ; but they draw after them other and larger portions of the surrounding
i2
116 THE PERMANENT IMPRESSION
element, and these again once moved, com- municate motion to others in endless succes- sion.
The solid substance of the globe itself, whe- ther we regard the minutest movement of the soft clay which receives its impression from the foot of animals, or the concussion produced from falling mountains rent by earthquakes, equally retains and communicates, through all its countless atoms, their apportioned shares of the motions so impressed.
Whilst the atmosphere we breathe is the ever- living witness of the sentiments we have uttered, the waters, and the more solid materials of the globe, bear equally enduring testimony of the acts we have committed.
If the Almighty stamped on the brow of the earliest murderer, — the indelible and visible mark of his guilt, — he has also established laws by which every succeeding criminal is not less
OF OUR WORDS. 117
irrevocably chained to the testimony of his crime ; for every atom of his mortal frame, through whatever changes its severed particles may migrate, will still retain, adhering to it through every combination, some movement derived from that very muscular effort, by which the crime itself was perpetrated.
118 hume's argument
CHAP. X.
ON hume's argument against miracles.
Few arguments have excited greater atten- tion, and produced more attempts at refutation, than the celebrated one of David Hume, re- specting miracles ; and it might be added, that more sophistry has been advanced against it, than its author employed in the whole of his writings.
It must be admitted that in the argument, as originally developed by its author, there exists some confusion between personal experience and that which is derived from testimony ; and that there are several other points open to criticism and objection ; but the main argu-
AGAINST MIRACLES. 119
ment, divested of its less important adjuncts, never has, and never will be refuted. Dr. Johnson seems to have been of this opinion, as the follov^ing extract from his life by Boswell proves : —
*' Talking of Dr. Johnson's unwillingness to believe ex- traordinary things, I ventured to say —
** * Sir, you come near to Hume's argument against mira-
* cles — That it is more probable witnesses should lie, or be
* mistaken, than that they should happen.'
" Johnson. — * Why, Sir, Hume, taking the proposition
* simply, is right. But the Christian revelation is not proved
* by miracles alone, but as connected with prophecies, and
* with the doctrines in confirmation of which miracles were
* wrought.' "*
Hume contends that a miracle is a violation of the laws of nature ; and as a firm and unalterable experience has established these laws, the proof against a miracle from the very nature of the fact, is as entire as any argument from experience can possibly be imagined.
* Boswell's Life of Johnson, Oxford, 1826. vol. iii. p. 169.
120 Hume's argument
*' The plain consequence is (and it is a general maxim *• worthy of our attention), that no testimony is sufficient " to establish a miracle, unless the testimony be of such a *' kind, that its falsehood would be more miraculous than the " fact which it endeavours to establish : and even in that case *' there is a mutual destruction of arguments, and the superior " only gives us an assurance suitable to that degree of force ** which remains after deducting the inferior." *
The difficulty which is frequently experi- enced in understanding this argument, appears to arise from the circumstance, that a double negative is concealed under the words '* its falsehood woulabe more miraculous than'' For in Hume's argument the word '^ miraculous'' means improbable, although the improbability is of a very high degree. The clause then reads —
Its falsehood would be more improbable than ;
which is evidently equivalent to
Its truth would be less improbable than ;
which is again equivalent to
Its truth would be more probable than. * Hume's Essays, Edinburgh, 1817, vol. ii. p. 117.
AGAINST MIRACLES. 121
Replacing this in Hume's argument, it stands thus —
" That no testimony is sufficient to establish a miracle, " unless tlie testimony be of such a kind, that its truth *' would be more probable than the fact which it endea- " vours to establish."
The argument is now reduced to the mere ^ truism, that —
The prohahllity in favour of the testimony by which a miracle is supported, must be greater than the prohahllity of the miracle itself. /
Before entering on the arguments I have to offer upon this point, it will be right to recall to the reader the view taken in a preceding chapter concerning the nature of miracles, and to compare it with that entertained by the acute philosopher whose essay I am venturing to criticise, lest, from any unperceived differ- ence in the employment of the term, I should inadvertently mislead both myself and my readers.
122 Hume's argument
It has been shown in the chapter above re- ferred to, that — A miracle may he only the exact fulfilment of a general law of nature, under such singular circumstances that to those imper- fectly acquainted with that law, it appears to be in direct opposition to it. The definition of a miracle adopted by Hume is this —
" A miracle is a violation of the laws of nature." *
And again, in note K —
'• A miracle may be accurately defined — A transgression ^^ of a law of nature hy a particular volition of the Deity ^ or *' hy the interposition of some invisible agent, A miracle may *' be either discovered by men or not. This alters not its " essence or its nature, "f
In order rightly to interpret this definition of a miracle, it is necessary to have the author's definition of a law of nature, which is given in a subsequent part of his essay.
** It is exjDerience only which gives authority to human '•* testimony ; and it is the same experience which assures us
* Page 114. . f Page 462.
AGAINST MIRACLES. 123
** of the laws of nature. When, therefore, these two kinds *' of experience are contrary, we have nothing to do but *' subtract the one from the other, and embrace an opinion, ** either on one side or the other, with that assurance which " arises from the remainder."*
Having pointed out the difference in our definitions, I shall now show a point of resem- blance between them, which is apparent in the following extract —
*' What we have said of miracles, may be applied without ** any variation to prophecies ; and indeed all prophecies are ** real miracles, and as such only can be admitted as proofs ** of any revelation."f
The reader who has entered into the rea- soning of Chapter VIII. of this fragment will perceive that, according to the views there maintained, it might be asserted that all mira- cles are prophecies : that they are revelations more or less in advance of events which, although in real accordance, are apparently in direct contradiction to the laws of nature.
* Hume's Essay, vol. ii. p. 129.
"f Page 131. A passage in this quotation has for conve- nience been marked in italics ; it is not so in the original.
124 hume's argument
Hume's argument in the first part of the Essay of Miracles, seems intended to prove that although the Deity might cause miracles to be worked, yet that it is impossible that those who did not witness them, could be convinced of their having occurred by any human testi- mony.
In the second part of that essay the author applies a hmitation to which he requests parti- cular attention — namely, that no human testi- mony can have such force as to prove a mira- cle, and make it a just foundation for any system of religion,
*' I beg the limitations here made may be remarked, ** when I say, that a miracle can never be proved, so as to " be the foundation of a system of religion."*
Had the argument been continued, it might have appeared still more startling ; for, as all miracles of which we have any account, rest, in
* Hume's Essay, vol. ii. p. 128.
AGAINST MIRACLES. 12/")
the first instance, on the testimony of eye-wit- nesses who are not themselves ahve to deUver their testimony, we require the fact that they did so testify, to be confirmed to us by the testi- mony of others. Now, if, in order to prove the miracle, it must be a greater miracle that the testimony of the eye-witnesses is true ; so, in order to assure us that the eye-witnesses did testify it, it must be a still greater miracle that those who assure us of that fact, themselves speak the truth. If this second testimony is not communicated to us personally, but is again transmitted, either through persons or through writings, we must again, at each transmission, require a greater miracle than at the preceding. Thus, it might at first sight be made to appear, that the amount of evidence required to esta- blish the truth of a miracle, said to have been performed at any distant period of past time, would be enormous.
However alarming this doctrine may appear, an examination of the real numerical value of
126 hume's argument
the quantities spoken of in Hume's argument as greater and less, will prove, as has frequently happened in other instances, that the con- sequences deduced from it by no means neces- sarily follow.
Hume has deduced the a priori probabi- lity against the occurrence of a miracle, from the universal experience of mankind; and, as it is only our own entire ignorance of all their causes which renders the question of mi- racles one of probability, there is no objection to be made to this step. On the contrary, it enables us to lay the foundation of numerical deductions, which have none of the vagueness of those at which Hume arrived.
Taking, therefore, Hume's own mode of es- timating a miracle, let us suppose the chances against its occurrence to be n to 1, where n is some enormously large number. Still, however, in this view of the question, there is a probability, however small, for its occurrence.
AGAINST MIRACLES. 127
whilst there exists an improbability of vast mag- nitude against it. It is on this ground that I have, according to Hume's own notions, called a miracle an improbahiUty ; and we may, there- fore, substitute that term for miracle and mi- raculous. The argument of Hume, when so translated, stands thus : —
That no testimony is sufficient to establish an improbability, unless the testimony be of such a kind that its falsehood would be more improba- ble than the occurrence of the fact which it en- deavours to establish.
But the '^ fact which it endeavours to es- tablish" is the improbability mentioned in the second line. Consequently, the testimony must be of such a nature, that its falsehood would be more improbable than that first im- probability.
Let us now apply the test of number to the argument of Hume ; and, for the sake of simpli-
128 Hume's argument
city, let us take the case of the miracle men- tioned in the next chapter, and let us assume that the improbability that a dead person will be restored to life, as deduced from past expe- rience, is 200,000,000,000 to 1.
Let us also suppose that there are witnesses who will speak the truth, and who are not them- selves deceived in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred. Now, let us examine what is the probability of the falsehood of a statement in which two such persons absolutely unknown to and unconnected with each other agree.
Since the order in which independent wit- nesses give their testimony docs not affect their credit, we may suppose that, in a given num- ber of statements, both witnesses tell the truth in the ninety-nine first cases, and the false- hood in the hundredth. Then,
The first time the second witness B testifies, he will agree with the testimony of the first
AGAINST MIRACLES. 129
witness A, in the ninety-nine first cases, and differ from him in the hundredth. Similarly, in the second testimony of B, he will again agree with A in ninety-nine cases, and differ in the hundredth, and so on for ninety-nine times ; so that, after A has testified a hundred, and B ninety-nine times, we shall have
99 X 99 cases in which both agree,
99 cases in which they differ, A being wrong.
Now, in the hundredth case in which B testi- fies, he is wrong ; and, if we combine this with the testimony of A, we have ninety-nine cases in which A is right and B wrong ; and one case only in which both A and B agree in error. The whole number of cases, which amounts to ten thousand, may be thus divided : —
99 X 99=9801 cases in which A and B agree in truth, 1 X 99= 99 cases in which B is true and A false,
99 X 1= 99 cases in which A is true and B false, 1x1= 1 case in which both A and B agree in a
falsehood.
10,000 cases.
K
130 Hume's argument
As there is only one case in ten thousand in which two such independent witnesses can agree in error, the probabiHty of their testimony being false is ^-^ or ^,.
The reader will already perceive how great a reliance is due to the concurring testimony of two independent witnesses of tolerably good character and understanding. It appears that the chance of one such witness being in error is ^r, that of two concurring in the same error is ^-^2 ; and if the same reasoning be ap- plied to three independent witnesses, it will be found that the probability of their agreeing in error is ^3 ; or that the odds are 999,999 ta
1 against the agreement.
Pursuing the same reasoning, the probability of the falsehood of a fact which six such inde- pendent witnesses attest is ^^ or it is, in round numbers.
AGAINST MIRACLES. 131
1,000,000,000,000 to 1 against the falsehood of their tes- timony.
The improbability of the miracle of a dead man being restored, is, as we have seen, on the principles stated by Hume, 20 {m)^ 5 or it is —
200,000,000,000 to 1 against its occurrence.
It follows, then, that the improbability of the falsehood of the concurring testimony of only six such independent witnesses^ is already ^ve times as great as the improbability against the miracle of a dead man's being restored to life, deduced from Hume's method of estimating its probability solely from experience. As the argument of Hume is universal, it is sufficient for its refutation to give a single instance in which it does not hold.
The reader will find, in a note in the Ap- pendix, the mathematical inquiry, in which, the degree of improbability of the miracle and
K 2
132 Hume's argument.
the degree of probability belonging to the wit- nesses being assigned, it will be seen whether any, and what number of such witnesses, can outweigh the improbability of the miracle.
A PRIORI ARGUMENT. 133
CHAP. XI.
A PRIORI ARGUMENT IN FAVOUR OF THE OCCUR- RENCE OF MIRACLES.
In the present chapter it is proposed to prove, that —
It is more probable that any law, at the know- ledge of which we have arrived by observation, shall be subject to one of those violations which, according to Hume's definition^ constitutes a mi- racle, than that it should not be so subjected.
To show the probabihty of this, we may be allowed again to revert to the Calculating Engine : and to assume that it is possible to set the machine, so that it shall calculate any
134 A PRIORI ARGUMENT.
algebraic law whatever : and also possible so to arrange it, that at any periods, however remote, the first law shall be interrupted for one or more times, and be superseded by any other law ; after which the original law shall again be produced, and no other deviation shall ever take place.
Now, as all laws, which appear to us regular and uniform in their course, and to be subject to no exception, can be calculated by the en- gine : and as each of these laws may also be calculated by the same machine, subject to any assigned interruption, at distinct and definite periods ; each simple law may be interrupted at any point by a portion of any one of all the other simple laws : it follows, that the class of laws subject to interruption is far more extensive than that of laws which are uninterrupted. It is, in fact, infinitely more numerous. There- fore, the probability of any law with which we have become acquainted by observation being part of a much more extensive law, and having,
Foil MIRACLES. 135
to use mathematical language, singular points or discontinuous functions contained within it, is very large.
Perhaps it may be objected, that the laws calculated by such an engine are not laws of nature, and that any deviation from laws pro- duced by human mechanism does not come within Hume's definition of miracles. To this it may be answered, that a law of nature has been defined by Hume to rest upon experi- ence, or repeated observation, just as the truth of testimony does. Now, the law produced by the engine may be arrived at by precisely the same means— -namely, repeated observation.
It may, however, be desirable to explain further the nature of that evidence, on which the fact, that the engine possesses those powers, rests.
When the Calculating Engine has been set to compute the successive terms of any given
136 A PRIORI ARGUMENT
law, which the observer is told will have an apparent exception (at, for example, the ten million and twenty-third term,) the observer is directed to note down the commencement of its computations ; and, by comparing these re- sults with his own independent calculations of the same law, he may verify the accuracy of the engine as far as he chooses. It may then be demonstrated to him, by the very structure of the machine, that if its motion were con- tinued, it would, necessarily^ at the end of a very long time, arrive at the ten-miUionth term of the law assigned to it ; and that, by an equal necessity, it would have passed through all the intermediate terms. The inquirer is now de- sired to turn on the wheels with his own hand, until they are precisely in the same situation as they would have been had the engine itself gone on continuously, to the ten-millionth term. The machine is again put in motion, and the observer again finds that each succes- sive term it calculates fulfils the original law. But, after passing twenty-two terms, he now
FOR MIRACLES. 137
observes one term which does not fulfil the original law, but which does coincide with the predicted exception.
The continued movement now again pro- duces terms according with the first law, and the observer may continue to verify them as long as he wishes. It may then be demonstrated to him, by the very structure of the machine, that, if its motion were continued, it would be impos- sible that any other deviation from the appa- rent law could ever occur at any future time.
Such is the evidence to the observer ; and, if the superintendent of the engine were, at his request, to make it calculate a great variety of different laws, each interrupted by special and remote exceptions, he would have ample ground to believe in the assertion of its director, that he could so arrange the engine that any law, however complicated, might be calculated to any assigned extent, when there should arise one apparent exception ; after which the
138 A PRIORI ARGUMENT
original law should continue uninterrupted for ever.
Let us now consider the miracle alluded to by Hume — the restoration of a dead man to life. According to the definition of that author, our belief in such a fact being contrary to the laws of nature, arises from our uniform experience against it. Our personal experience is small : we must therefore have recourse to testimony; and from that we learn, that the dead are never restored to life ; and, consequently, we have the uniform experience of all mankind since the creation, against one assigned instance of a dead man being so restored. Let us now find the numerical amount of this evidence. Assuming the origin of the human race to have been about six thousand years ago, and taking thirty years as the duration of a generation, we have —
6000
— — = 200 generations. 30
FOR MIRACLES. 139
And allowing that the average population of the earth has been a thousand millions, we find that there have been born and have died since the creation,
200 X 1,000,000,000 =200,000,000,000 individuals.
Such, then, according to Hume, are the odds against the truth of the miracle : that is to say, it is found from experience, that it is about two hundred thousand millions to one against a dead man having been restored to life.
Let us now compare this with a parallel case in the calculations of the engine ; and let us suppose the number above stated to be a hun- dred million times as great, or that the truth of the miracles is opposed by a number of in- stances, expressed by twenty places of figures.
The engine may be set to count the natural numbers — 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. ; and it shall continue
140 A PRIORI ARGUMENT
to fulfil that law, not merely for the number of times just mentioned, for that number is quite insignificant among the vast periods it involves ; but the natural numbers shall follow in conti- nual succession, until they have reached an amount which requires for its expression above a hundred million places of figures. If every letter in the volume now before the reader's eyes were changed into a figure, and if all the figures contained in a thousand such volumes were arranged in order, the whole together would yet fall far short of the vast induction the observer would have had in favour of the truth of the law of natural numbers. The widest range of all the cycles of astronomy and geology combined, sink into insignificance be- fore such a period. Yet, shall the engine, true to the prediction of its director, after the lapse of myriads of ages, fulfil its task, and give that one, the Jirst and only exception to that time-sanctioned law. What would have been the chances against the appearance of the excepted case, immediately prior to its
FOR MIRACLES. 141
occurrence ? It would have had, according to Hume, the evidence of all experience against it, with a force myriads of times more strong than that against any miracle.
Now, let the reader, who has fully entered into the nature of the argument, ask himself this question : — Does he believe that such an engine has really been contrived, and what reasonable grounds has he for that belief?
The testimony of any single witness is small against such odds ; besides, the witness may deceive himself. Whether he speaks truly, will be estimated by his moral character — whether he deceives himself, will be estimated by his intellectual character. The probability that such an engine has been contrived, will, how- ever, receive great addition, when it is re- marked, that mathematical — and, especially, geometrical evidence is, of all others, that in which the fewest mistakes arise, and in which they are most readily discovered ; and when it is
142 A PRIORI ARGUMENT.
added, that the fact of the invention of such an engine may be deduced from the drawings with all the force of demonstration, and that it rests on precisely the same species of evidence as the propositions of Euclid. Whether such an engine could be actually made in the present state of mechanical art, is a question of quite a different order : it must rest upon the opinions of those who have had extensive experience in that art. The author has not the slightest hesitation in stating his opinion to be, that it is fully within those limits.
This, however, is a question foreign to the nature of the argument, which might have been stated in a more abstract manner, without any reference to such an engine. As, however, it really arose from that machine, and as visible forms make a much deeper impression on the mind than any abstract reasonings, it has been stated in conjunction with that subject.
NATURE OF FUTURE PUNISHMENTS. 143
CHAPTER XII.
THOUGHTS ON THE NATURE OF FUTURE PUNISHMENTS.
Who has not felt the painful memory of departed folly? who has not at times found crowding on his recollection, thoughts, feel- ings, scenes, by all perhaps but him for- gotten, which force themselves involuntarily on his attention ? Who has not reproached himself with the bitterest regret at the follies he has thought, or said, or acted? Time brings no alleviation to these periods of morbid memory : the weaknesses of our youthful days, as well as those of later life, come equally
14-4 NATURE OF
unbidden and unarranged, to mock our atten- tion and claim their condemnation from our severer judgment.
It is remarkable that those whom the world least accuses, accuse themselves the most ; and that a foolish speech^ which at the time of its utterance was unobserved as such by all who heard it, shall yet remain fixed in the memory of him who pronounced it, with a tenacity which he vainly seeks to communicate to more agreeable subjects of reflection. It is also remarkable that whilst our own foibles, or our imagined exposure of them to others, furnish the most frequent subject of almost nightly regret, yet we rarely recall to recollec- tion our acts of consideration for the feelings of others, or those of kindness and benevolence. These are not the familiar friends of our memory, ready at all times to enter the domi- cile of mind its unbidden but welcome guests. When they appear, they are usually summoned at the command of reason, from some un-
FUTURE PUNISHMENTS. 145
expected ingratitude, or when the mind retires within its council chamber to nerve itself for the endurance or the resistance of injustice.
If such be the pain, the penalty of thought- less folly, who shall describe the punishment of real guilt ? Make but the offender better, and he is already severely punished. Memory, that treacherous friend but faithful monitor, recalls the existence of the past, to a mind now imbued with finer feelings, with sterner notions of justice than when it enacted the deeds thus punished by their recollection.
If additional knowledge be given to us, the consequences of many of our actions appear in a very altered light. We become acquainted with many evils they have produced, which, al- though quite unintentional on our part, are yet a subject of painful regret. But this unavailing regret is mixed with another feeling far more distressing. We reproach ourselves with not having sufiiciently employed the faculties we
146 NATURE OF
possessed in acquiring that knowledge, which, if we had attained, would have prevented us from committing acts we now discover to have been injurious to those we best loved.
On the other hand, the good which such increased knowledge enables us to discover that we have unhitentionally done, fails to pro- duce that satisfaction always arising from a vir- tuous motive ; and it is accompanied by the regret that, by a sufficient cultivation of our faculties, we might have enjoyed a still higher satisfaction, by a more efficient service to our fellow-creatures.
Thus, on whichsoever side we look at the question, knowledge alone is advantageous to virtue ; and if additional knowledge alone were given in a future life, it would cause the best of us to regret the errors of the present.
Let us now consider the consequences of a higher tone of moral feeling — of a perception
FUTURE PUNISHMENTS. 147
of excellencies of character, hitherto unap- preciated.
Without the torment arising from additional knowledge, we may, in such circumstances, perceive, that the pain we have inflicted for imagined offences was quite beyond their real deserts; and we may feel that the justice we have done to others, has been quite dispropor- tioned to the sacrifices they have made to serve us.
If, without any addition to our intellectual faculties, increased perfection were given to our bodily senses, the same result would ensue, Wollaston has shown, that there are sounds of such a nature, that they can be heard by some individuals, but are inaudible to others, — a cir- cumstance which may arise either from the incapacity of the parts of the ear to vibrate in the same time as those which produced the sound, or from the force of the sounding body being insufficient to communicate through the
L 2
148 NATURE OF
air motion to those portions of the ear required for the production of the sensation of hearing.
If we imagine the soul in an after stage of our existence, connected with a bodily organ of hearing so sensitive, as to vibrate with motions of the air, even of infinitesimal force, and if it be still within the precincts of its ancient abode, all the accumulated words pronounced from the creation of mankind, will fall at once on that ear. Imagine, in addition, a power of directing the attention of that organ entirely to any one class of those vibrations : then will the apparent confusion vanish at once ; and the punished offender may hear still vibrating on his ear the very words uttered, perhaps, thousands of centuries before, which at once caused and registered his own condemnation.
It seems, then, that with improved faculties or increased knowledge, we could scarcely look back with any satisfaction on our past lives — that, to the major part of our race, oblivion
FUTURE PUNISHMENTS. 149
would be the greatest boon. If, however, in a future state, we could turn from the contem- plation of our own imperfections, and with in- creiised knowledge apply our minds to the discovery of nature's laws, and to the invention of new methods by which our faculties might be aided in that research, pleasure the most unalloyed would await us at eveiy stage of our progress.
Un clogged by the dull corporeal load of mat- ter which tyrannizes even over our most intel- lectual moments, and chains the ardent spirit to its unkindred clay, we should advance in the pursuit, stimulated instead of wearied by our past exertions, and encountering each new dif- ficulty in the inquiry, with the accumulated power derived from the experience of the past, and the irresistible efforts resulting from the confidence of ultimate success.
Whether, then, we regard our future pros- pects asconnected with afar higher acuteness of
150 NATURE OF FUTURE PUNISHMENTS.
our present senses — or, as purified by more exalted moral feelings — or, as guided by in- tellectual power, surpassing all we contem- plate on earth, we equally arrive at the conclu- sion, that the mere employment of such enlarged faculties, in surveying our past existence, will be an ample punishment for all our errors ; whilst, on the other hand, if that Being who assigned to us those faculties, should turn their application from the survey of the past, to the inquiry into the present and to the search into the future, the most enduring happiness will arise from the most inexhaustible source.
ON FREE WILL. 151
CHAP. XIII.
REFLECTIONS ON FREE WILL.
The great question of the incompatibility of one of the attributes of the Creator — that of fore-knowledge, with the existence of the free exercise of their will in the beings he has created, — has long baffled human comprehen- sion ; nor is it the object of this chapter to enter upon that difficult question.
As, however, some of the properties of the Calculating Engine seem, although but very remotely, to bear on a similar question, with respect to finite beings, it may, perhaps, not be entirely useless to state them.
152 REFLECTIONS
It has already been observed, that it is pos- sible so to adjust the engine, that it shall change the law it is calculating into another law at any distant period that may be assigned.
Now, by a similar adjustment, this change may be made to take place at a time not fore- seen by the person employing the engine. For example : when calculating a table of squares, it may be made to change into a table of cubes, the first time the square number ends in the figures —
269696 ;
an event which only occurs at the 99736th calculation ; and whether that fact is known to the person who adjusts the machine or not, is immaterial to the result.
But the very condition on which the change depends, maybe impossible. Thus, the change of the law from that of squares to that of cubes may be made to take place the first time
ON FREE WILL. 153
the square number ends with a 7. But it is known, that no square number can end in a 7 ; consequently the event, on the happening of which the change is determined, can itself never take place. Yet, the engine retains impressed on it a law, which would be called into action if the event on which it depends could occur in the course of the law it is cal- culating.
Nay, further, if the observer of the engine is informed, that at certain times he can move the last figure the engine has calculated, and change it into any other, in consequence of which it becomes possible that some future term may end in 7 ; then, after he has so changed the last figure, whenever that ter- minal figure arrives, all future numbers calcu- lated by the machine will follow the law of the cubes.
154 REFLECTIONS
These contingent changes may be hmited to single exceptions, and the arrival of such ex- ception may be made contingent on a change which is only possible at certain rare periods. For example : the engine may be set to calculate square numbers, and after a certain number of calculations — ten million and fifty-three, for example, it shall be possible to add unity to a wheel in another part of the engine, which in every other instance is immovable. This fact being communicated to the observer, he may either make that addition or refrain from it : if he refrain, the law of the squares will con- tinue for ever ; if he make the addition, one single cube will be substituted for that square number, which ought to occur ten million and five terms beyond the point at which he made
ON FREE WILL. 155
the addition ; and after that no future addi- tion will ever become possible, and no future deviation from the law of the squares will ever occur.
I
156 THE ORIGIN OF EVIL,
CHAP. XIV.
THOUGHTS ON THE ORIGIN OF EVIL.
/ had intended to have pat into writing the substance of an interesting discussion I once had with a distinguished Philosopher, now no more, but other demands on my time have pre- vented the completion of this intention.
CONCLUSION. 157
CONCLUSION.
Reader, I have now fulfilled the task I under- took. Labouring under that imputed mental incapacity which the science 1 cultivate has been stated to produce^ I have brought from the recesses of that science the reasonings and illustrations by which I have endeavoured faintly to embody the human conception of the Almighty mind. It is for you to determine whether the trains of thought I have excited have lowered or exalted your previous notions of the power and the knowledge of the Creator.
1.58 CONCLUSION.
That prejudice which I have endeavoured to expose is not a merely speculative opinion, it is a practical evil ; and those whose writings have been supposed to give support to it, will, I am sure, feel grieved when they learn that it is used by the ignorant and the designing, for the injury of the virtuous and the instructed; that it is employed as a firebrand, to disturb the re- lations of social life. They will also, if the arguments I have used have the same weight on their minds which they have had on my own, lament still more deeply that they should have contributed, in any degree, to throw discredit on that species of knowledge which is now found to supply some of the strongest arguments in favour of religion. I will, how- ever, hope that the opinions I have com- bated are not shared or even countenanced by the higher authorities of our Protestant Church ; and I cannot better conclude this Fragment, than by recalling to the reader the words of one, whose power of reasoning, and whose love of truth, add dignity to the high station he so deservedly fills : —
CONCLUSION. 159
*' Lastly, As we must not dare to withhold *' or disguise revealed religious truth, so, we " must dread the progress of no other truth. ^' We must not imitate the bigoted Romanists ** who imprisoned Galileo ; and step forward " Bible hi hand (hke the profane Israelites car- " rying the Ark of God into the field of battle) *' to check the inquiries of the Geologist, the *' Astronomer, or the Political-economist, from '' an apprehension that the cause of religion " can be endangered by them.^ Any theory *' on whatever subject, that is really sound, can *^ never be inimical to a religion founded on ^' truth ; and any that is unsound may be re- " futed by arguments drawn from observation " and experiment, without calhng in the aid of " revelation. If we give way to a dread of " danger from the inculcation of any scriptural ** doctrine, or from the progress of physical or ** moral science, we manifest a want of faith in */ God's power, or in his will, to maintain his
* See First Lecture on Political Economy.
160 CONCLUSION.
* own cause. That we shall indeed best fur- ^ ther his cause by fearless perseverance in an ' open and straight course, I am firmly per- ' suaded ; but it is not only when we perceive ' the mischiefs of falsehood and disguise, and ' the beneficial tendency of fairness and can- ^ dour, that we are to be followers of truth : ^ the trial of our faith is, when we cannot per- ' ceive this : and the part of a lover of truth ^ is to follow her at all seeming hazards, after ^ the example of Him who * came into the ^ world that He might bear witness to the ' Truth.'"*
* Sermons by the Archbishop of Dublin.
APPENDIX
M
;
APPENDIX.
NOTE A.
ON THE GREAT LAW WHICH REGULATES MATTER.
Ever since the period when Newton established the great law of gravity, philosophers have occasionally speculated on the existence of some more comprehen- sive law, of which gravity itself is the consequence. Although some have considered it vain to search for a more general law, the great philosopher himself left encouragement to future inquirers ; and the time, per- haps, has even now arrived, when such a discovery may be near its maturity. It would occupy too much space to introduce many illustrations of this opinion ; there is, however, one which deserves attention, because it is not merely a happy conjecture, but the hypothesis on which it rests has been carried by its author, through the aid of profound mathematical reasoning, to many of its remote consequences.
M 2
IGi' APPENDIX.
M. Mosotti* has shown, that by supposing matter to consist of two sorts of particles, each of which repels similar particles, directly as the mass, and inversely as the squares, of their distances ; whilst each attracts those of the other kind, also according to the same law, — then the resulting attractions explain all the pheno- mena of electricity, and there remains a residual force, acting at ail sensible distances, according to the law of gravity.
Many of the discoveries of the present day point towards a more general law ; and many of the philo- sophers of the present time anticipate its near approach. Under these circumstances, it may be interesting as well as useful briefly to state the principles which such a law must comprehend ; and to indicate, however im- perfectly, the path to be pursued in the research.
If matter be supposed to consist of two sorts of particles, or rather, perhaps, of two sorts of centres of force, of different orders of density ; and if the parti- cles of each order repel their own particles, according to a given law, but attract particles of the other kind, according to another law, — then, if we conceive only one particle of the denser kind to exist, and an infinite
* Professoi- of Physics at the University of the Ionian Islands. — The paper of M. Mosotti has been translated, and published by Mr. 11. Taylor, in the third number of tlie Scientific Memoirs ; a work which it is proposed shall contain translations of all the most important original papers printed in foreign countries.
APPENDIX. 165
number of the other kind, that single particle will be- come the centre of a system, surrounded by all the others, which will form around it an atmosphere denser near the central body.
If we conceive a stream of particles, similar to those forming the atmosphere, to impinge upon it, so as just to overcome its resistance, they will, whilst continually producing undulations throughout its whole extent, gradually increase its magnitude, until it attains such a size, that the repulsion of the particles at its outer sur- face is just balanced by the attraction of the central particle. If the stream continue after this point is reached, the whole outer layer will be pressed a little beyond the limit of attraction, and will fly off at right angles to the surface, which might then be said to radiate.
If the whole of the space in which such a central particle with its atmosphere is placed, is itself full of atmospheric particles, then their density will increase in approaching the central body ; and if a stream of such particles were directed towards the centre, they might produce throughout the atmosphere vibrations, which would be transmitted from it in all directions.
If two such central particles, with their atmospheres, exist at a distance from each other, they will be drawn together by a force depending on the difference between
166 APPENDIX.
the mutual repulsion of their atmospheres and central bodies respectively for each other, and the attraction of each central particle for its neighbour's atmosphere : and in order to coincide with the existing law of nature, this must be directly as the mass, and inversely as the square, of the distance. The other conditions which such a law must satisfy, are —
1. That the juxtaposition of such atoms must, in some circumstances, form a solid body.
2. In other circumstances, a fluid.
3. That again, in still other circumstances, its par- ticles shall repel each other, or the body become gaseous.
4. In the first state the body must possess cohesion, tenacity, malleability, elasticity ; the measure and extent of each of which must result generally from the origi- nal law, and in each particular case from the constants belonging to the substance itself.
5. In the second, it must possess capillarity, suscep- tibihty of being compressed without becoming solid, as also elasticity.
But besides these, the central atoms must admit of a more intimate approach, so that their atmospheres may
APPENDIX. 167
unite and form one atmosphere. This might constitute chemical union. Binary compounds might then (sup- posing the distance between the two central particles to be very small, compared with the diameters of the at- mospheres) have atmospheres not quite spherical, and attracting differently in ditferent directions ; thus pos- sessing polarity. Combinations of three or more atoms, as the central body of one atmosphere, might give great varieties of attractive forces. Each dif- ferent combination would give a different atmosphere ; and the equation of its surface might, perhaps, be- come the mathematical expression of the substance it constituted. Thus, all the phenomena produced by bodies, acting chemically on each other, might be de- duced from the comparison of the characteristic surfaces of the atmospheres of their atoms. Another result, also, might ensue. Two or more central atoms uniting, might either not be able to retain the same amount of atmosphere, or they might possibly be able to retain a larger quantity. If the particles of such atmospheres constituted heat, it would in the former case be given out, and in the latter absorbed by chemical union.
Hence the whole of chemistry, and with it crystal- lography, would become a branch of mathematical analysis, which, like astronomy, taking its constants from observation, would enable us to predict the cha- racter of any new compound, and possibly indicate the source from which its formation might be anticipated.
168 APPENDIX.
For the sake of simplicity, two species of particles only have been mentioned above ; but it seems more probable, that matter consists of at least three kinds.
Suppose each kind to repel its own particles ; and supposing the central atom, whilst it repels similar particles, to attract those of the two other kinds ; and moreover, that these latter were either repulsive, or indifferent to each other. We might then conceive matter to be made up of particles, each having a central point, with an atmosphere surrounding it, and this at- mosphere again inclosed within another and larger one.
Under such circumstances, the outer atmosphere might give rise to heat and light, to solidity and fluidity, and the gaseous condition ; to capillarity, to elasticity, tenacity, and malleability. The more intimate union of the central atoms, by which two or more become enclosed in one common atmosphere of the second kind, might represent chemical combinations, and per- haps that atmosphere itself be electricity. Possibly, also, this intermediate atmosphere, acted on by the pressure of the external one, and by the attraction of the central atom, might take the liquid form. These binary or multiple-combinations of the original atoms, and their smaller atmospheres, would still be enclosed in an atmosphere of the outer kind, which might be nearly spherical. The joint action of the three might, at sensible distances, produce gravity.
APPENDIX. 169
The reader should, however, bear in mind, that these hints are but thrown out as objects of reflection and inquiry ; and that nothing but a profound mathe- matical investigation can establish them, or even give to them that temporary value which arises from any hypothesis, representing a large collection of facts.
170 APPENDIX.
NOTE B.
ON THE CALCULATING ENGINE.
The nature of the arguments advanced in this volume having obhged me to refer, more frequently than I should have chosen, to the Calculating Engine, it be- comes necessary to give the reader some brief account of its progress and present state.
About the year 18S1, I undertook to superintend, for the Government, the construction of an engine for calculating and printing mathematical and astronomical tables. Early in the year 1833, a small portion of the machine was put together, and it performed its work with all the precision which had been anticipated. At that period circumstances, which I could not control, caused what I then considered a temporary suspen- sion of its progress ; and the Government, on whose
APPENDIX. 171
decision the continuance or discontinuance of the work depended, have not yet communicated to me their wishes on the question. The first illustration I have employed is derived from the calculations made by this engine.
About October, 1834, I commenced the design of another, and far more powerful engine. Many of the contrivances necessary for its performance have since been discussed and drawn according to various prin- ciples ; and all of them have been invented in more than one form. I consider them, even in their pre- sent state, as susceptible of practical execution ; but time, thought, and expense, will probably improve them. As the remaining illustrations are all drawn from the powers of this new engine, it may be right to state, that it will calculate the numerical value of any algebraical function — that, at any period previously fixed upon, or contingent on certain events, it will cease to tabulate that algebraic function, and commence the calculation of a different one, and that these changes may be repeated to any extent.
The former engine could employ about 120 figures in its calculations; the present is intended to compute with about 4,000.
Here I should willingly have left the subject ; but the public having erroneously imagined, that the sums
ITS APPENDIX.
of money paid to the workmen for the construction of the engine, were the remuneration of ray own services, for inventing and directing its progress ; and a Com- mittee of the House of Commons having incidentally led the public to believe that a sum of money was voted to me for that purpose, I think it right to give to that report the most direct and unequivocal contradiction.
APPENDIX. 17.3
NOTE C.
EXTRACT FROM THE THEORY OF PROBABILITIES OF
LAPLACE.
" Nous devons done envisager I'etat present de Tuni- vers, comme I'efFet de son etat anterieur, et comme la cause de celui qui va suivre.
*' Une intelligence qui pour un instant donnee, con- naitrait toutes les forces dont la nature est animee, et la situation respective des etres qui la composent, si d'ailleurs elle etait assez vaste pour soumettre ces don- nees a I'analyse, embrasserait, dans la meme formule, les mouvemens des plus grands corps de I'univers et ceux du plus 16ger atome : rien ne serait incertain pour elle, et I'avenir, comme le passe, serait presept a ses yeux. L'esprit humain offre, dans la perfection qu'il a su don- ner a I'astronomie, une faible esquisse de cette intelli-
174 APPENDIX.
gence, Ses decouvertes en mecanique et en georaetrie, jointes a celle de la pesanteur universelle, I'ont mis a portee de comprendre dans les memes expressions ana- lytiques, les etats passes et futurs du systeme du monde.
*' En appliquantle meme methode a quelques autres objets de ses connaissances, il est parvenu k ramener h des lois generates, les phenomenes observes, et a prevoir ceux que des circonstances donnees doivent faire eclore. Tous ses efforts dans la recherche de la verite, tendent a le rapprocher sans cesse I'intelligence que nous venons de concevoir, mais dont il restera toujours infiniment eloign^. Cette tendance propre k I'espece humaine, est ce qui la rend superieure aux animaux ; et ses progres en ce genre, distinguent les nations et les siecles, etfondent leur veritable gloire." — Laplace, TMorie Analytique des Probabilites,
APPENDIX 175
NOTE D.
NOTE TO CHAP. VIII. ON MIRACLES.
The view taken of miracles in Chapter VIII. is the same as that contained in the work of Butler, on the Analogy of Religion to the Constitution and Course of Nature. Inquiries connected with the Calculating Engine, impressed it very forcibly on my own mind, and I have drawn the illustrations chiefly from that subject. I cannot, however, forbear referring the reader to the opinion of Sir J. Herschel, expressed at the beginning of his letter to Mr. Lyell, (see Note I.) because it confirms me in the belief, that the more pro- foundly we inquire into the mechanism of nature, the more certainly we arrive at that conclusion.
176 APPENDIX.
NOTE E.
NOTE TO CHAPTER X. ON HUMe's ARGUMENT AGAINST MIRACLES.
The example in the text is sufficient to show that the conclusion at which Hume arrived respecting the sufficiency of testimony to support a miracle, will not bear the test of a numerical examination. It may, however, be interesting to point out the amount of tes- timony required, under different circumstances.
The reader will observe, that throughout the chapter to which this note refers, as well as in the note itself, the argument of Hume is taken strictly according to his own interpretation of the terms he uses, and the calculations are founded on them ; so that it is from the very argument itself, when fairly pursued to its full extent, that the refutation results.
APPENDIX. 177
Both our belief in the truth of human testimony, and our beUefin the permanence of the laws of nature, are, according to Hume, founded on experience; we may, therefore, in the complete ignorance in which he assumes we are, with respect to the causes of either, treat the question as one of the probability of an event deduced solely from observations of the past.
If an event has been observed to happen m times in succession, it is known that the probability of its hap-
pening the next time is ^ , and the probability of
its not arriving is — —- ^ .* If we suppose m to repre- sent the amount of the uniform experience of all mankind, from the creation to the present time, it will
be a very large number, and ^ will represent the
probability of the occurrence of a miracle opposed to that experience.
Again : if it is found from experience, that a certain class of men out of every p statements, make one of them false, either from ignorance or design, then the
* " On trouve ainsi qu'un ev^nement etant arrive de suite, un nombre quelconque de fois ; la probabilite qu'il arrivera encore la fois suivante est egale a ce nombre augment^ de I'unite, divise par le meme nombre augment^ de deux unites." — Laplace's Theorie Ana- lytiqne des Probabilites, p. xiii.
N
178 APPENDIX.
probability of the falsehood of a statement made by such a person, is 1
The probability that two such persons will concur in falsehood, is ]
^' and the probability of the concurrence of n such per- sons in an error, is 1
Now, according to Hume's argument, the falsehood of the testimony by which a miracle is supported, must be a more miraculous event than the occurrence of the miracle itself.
Here, then, we have for the measure of the improba- bility of the testimony —^^ , and for that of the occur- rence of the miracle ; and, in order to prove
m-\-2 ^
the miracle, the first improbability must be greater than the second. But this can only happen when
p^^ m + 2. Hence, n log. p ^ log. (?/2 + 2)
and „>J5g_(^±l). ^ iog.p
It follows, therefore, that however large m may be, or however great the quantity of experience against the
APPENDIX. 179
occurrence of a miracle, (provided only that there are persons whose statements are more frequently cor- rect than incorrect, and who give their testimony in favour of it without collusion,) a certain number n can ALM^AYs be found ;^ so that it shall be a greater irrir probability that they shall agree in error^ than that the miracle shall occur.
Let us suppose each of the witnesses who gives independent testimony, makes one erroneous state- ment in ten; then
" > log. 10 > ^°S- (»» + 2).
And, moreover, let us suppose the number of places of figures contained in tw + 2, to be ^ ; then log. {m + 2) is nearly equal to ^^ — 1 , and
n^h— 1.
Now let the number of observed instances in which the miracle has not occurred be a million million;
or, 1,000,000,000,000,
then the number of such witnesses necessary to prove its occurrence is
w>log.(10^H2)>12,
or thirteen such witnesses are sufficient.
If J) = 100, then we must have for the number of such witnesses,
N 2
180 APPENDIX.
^ log, {m + 2)^ log, (m + 2) -^ log. 100 -^ 2 '
and if, as before, 7n is a million millions,
or seven witnesses, are sufficient.
It may be proper to remark, that if a person has established his power to work a miracle in one or more instances, the probability of his being able to do so in any other case becomes considerable, whatever may be the probability of his usual statements. For, as we have observed that in the one or more instances in which he stated that he should perform a miracle, the event followed his prediction ; and, also, that in no instance it failed to follow such prediction : we must treat the case in the same manner as the occurrence of an event m times in succession ; and, if he have performed m miracles, the probability that he will perform any other which he predicts is m -\-l
m + 2' or, if he has performed a miracle only once, it is two to one that he has power to perform the next miracle he predicts.
The view explained in the chapter of the text to which this note refers, was takei^ previously to my pe- rusal of the observations of Dr. Chalmers " on the
APPENDIX. 181
power which lies in the concurrence of distinct testi- monies,"* contained in a work pointed out to me by a friend to whom I had mentioned the subject. Dr. Chalmers' view is, I believe, substantially the same as my own, as far as relates to the effect of concurrent testimony ; and had the nature of his work admitted the introduction of algebraic operations, he would, most probably, have combined it with the other principle I have employed, of the probability of the occurrence of a future event from observations of the past, and thus have arrived at the complete answer to the argument of Hume against miracles, by not only showing the possibility of supporting them by testi- mony, but even of ascertaining, in any given circum- stances, the precise number of witnesses required.
* Evidences of the Christian Revelation, vol i. p. 129.
182
APPENDIX.
NOTE F.
ON THE CONSEQUENCES OF CENTRAL HEAT.
The increase of temperature observed as we descend below the earth's surface, as well as other pheno- mena, have led to a very general opinion, that great heat exists in the interior of the earth, and that the body of our planet, having been at one time intensely heated, has cooled down to its present temperature. With the view of pointing out courses of inquiry, by which these opinions may ultimately be tested by ob- servation, it is expedient to take a cursory view of some of the consequences of such an hypothesis.
And first, let us imagine the exterior of our globe to have once been in a state of intense heat. No fluid such as water could then have existed on its surface : it would instantly have been converted into vapour ; and
APPENDIX. 183
notwithstanding the increased weight of atmosphere thus produced, and pressing on its surface, sufficient heat would have reduced all fluids to the gaseous state. Let us, however, inquire as to the possible extent of such an atmosphere.
In the first place, it could not extend beyond that point at which the moon's attraction is equal to that of the earth. In the next place, much more con- tracted limits would be prescribed by the effect of centrifugal force, and of the cooling of the vapour by expansion, and by its distance from the source of ra- diant heat, which had produced that state.
It would be interesting to inquire, what would be the nature of the surface of the atmosphere under such circumstances. At the distance at which the centrifugal force is equal to that of gravity, it might happen that the temperature was scarcely sufficient to maintain the water in a gaseous state. Should this have been the case, a belt of perpetual clouds might have been formed, resembling those of Jupiter.
If, at this limit, a still lower degree of temperature prevailed, instead of a belt of clouds, a ring of ice might be formed.
This ring of ice, being exposed to different eflTects of radiation from various parts of the earth's surface.
184 APPENDIX.
might, by the superior heat at one part, become di- minished, whilst the condensation of vapours might augment less exposed parts : and these conditions might continue, until at last the ring itself was melted through at one point, and the whole would fall down on the surface of the planet. The tearing up of that surface from such an event, would be augmented by the sudden conversion of the solid ice into steam ; and after a time, the fragments of the ring would be ab- sorbed again into the atmosphere of the planet.
Let us now suppose, owing to the gradual cooling down of the whole globe, the limit of condensation of steam into water, to occur at a nearer point than that at which the centrifugal force equals that of gravity. As soon as the steam is condensed into water, it will de- scend towards the surface of the earth ; but that surface being still very hot, will, by its radiation, again con- vert the descending shower into steam ; and this will happen at different heights above the surface, accord- ing to the radiating power of the part below. We may, therefore, conceive a shell surrounding the earth, the outer surface of which has just been condensed into water, and the inner consists of vapour, just re-con- verted into that state by the earth's radiation. These surfaces will attain different heights in different places. Between these two surfaces there will exist a perpetual rain, descending from the upper as a gentle shower, becoming gradually a violent current, and then as
APPENDIX. 185
it falls re-absorbed into another gentle shower, which is entirely absorbed in approaching the heated surface. Such being the state of things, let us imiigine the globe to cool down uniformly. The lower surface of the descending rain, which is placed at irregular heights, will at length be brought down to the earth's surface in one or more points. The effect of this, which will in the first instance be a gentle shower, would be to cool that portion of the surface on which it falls, and hence to diminish its radiating power. This change, in its turn, will lower the under surface of the watery shell, so that a more violent rain, and ultimately an impetuous torrent will continue, perhaps, for thousands of years, its unintermitted vertical action on the surface exposed to its force. The excavation of the largest valleys, or even of ocean beds, is not too much to expect from such forces.
But let us take another view of the consequences of such an original state of incandescence. The whole of the fluids now on the surface of the earth must then have been suspended in its atmosphere. But the ex- tent of that atmosphere is itself limited by various causes : the attraction of other bodies, the eifects of centrifugal force, the decrease of temperature, and the distances at which the particles of gaseous bodies cease to repel each other, all have their influence in deter- mining its form and magnitude. Let us suppose that we possessed data from which the approximate amount
186 APPENDIX.
of vapour contained in the entire atmosphere were known, and consequently the whole amount of water in it ; then, since we know the area of the present seas, we might easily ascertain their average depth. If the result of such a computation should give a mean depth much less than that which we know the ocean to pos- sess,— as, for instance, only a hundred feet, — then we might conclude, either that the surface of the earth had never been in such a state of incandescence as has been supposed, or that if it had, that a new source of aqueous vapour had been supplied to it, subsequently to its cooling down.
APPENDIX 225
acts upon, would produce ripple of larger size than would otherwise occur.
The surface of the sun presents to very good tele- scopes a certain mottled appearance, which is not exactly ripple, and which it is difficult to convey by description. It may, however, be suggested, that wherever such appearances occur, whether in planetary or in stellar bodies, or in the minuter precincts of the dye-house and the engine-boiler, they indicate the fitness of an inquiry, whether there are not two cur- rents of fluid or semi-fluid matter, one moving with a different velocity over the other, the direction of the motion being at right angles to the lines of waves.
226 APPENDIX.
NOTE M.
ON THE AGE OF STRATA, AS INFERRED FROM THE RINGS OF TREES EMBEDDED OF THEM.
The indelible records of past events which are pre- served within the solid substance of our globe, may be in some measure understood without that refined ana- lysis on which their complete knowledge depends. The remains of vegetation, and of animal life, em- bedded in their coeval rocks, attest the existence of other times ; and as science and the arts advance, we shall be enabled to read the minuter details of their living history. The object of the present note is to suggest to the reader a line of inquiry, by which we may still trace some small portion of the history of the past in the fossil woods which occur in so many of our strata.
It is well known that dicotyledonous trees increase in size by the deposition of an additional layer annually
APPENDIX. 227
between tlie wood and the bark, and that a transverse section of such trees presents the appearance of a series of nearly concentric irregular rings, the number of which indicates the age of the tree. The relative thickness of these rings depends on the more or less flourishing state of the plant during the years in which they were formed. Each ring may, in some trees, be observed to be subdivided into others, thus indicating successive periods of the same year during which its vegetation was advanced or checked. These rings are disturbed in certain parts by irregularities resulting from branches ; and the year in which each branch first sprung from the parent stock may be ascertained by proper sections.
It has been found by experiment, that even the motion imparted to a tree by the winds has an influ- ence on its growth. Two young trees of equal size and vigour w^ere selected and planted in similar circum- stances, except that one was restrained from having any motion in the direction of the meridian, by two strong ropes fixed to it, and connecting it to the ground, at some distance to the north and south. The other tree was by similar means prevented from having any motion in the direction of east and west. After several years, both trees were cut down, and the sections of their stems were found to be oval ; but the longer axis of the oval of each was in the direction in which it had been capable of being moved by the winds.
Q
Q
^22S API'ENDIX.
These prominent effects are obvious to our senses; but every shower that falls, every change of tempe- rature that occurs, and every wind that blows, leaves on the vegetable world the traces of its passage ; slight, indeed, and imperceptible, perhaps, to us, but not the less permanently recorded in the depths of those woody fabrics.
All these indications of the growth of the living tree are preserved in the fossil trunk, and with them also frequently the history of its partial decay. Let us now examine the use we may make of these details relative to individual trees, when considering forests submerged by seas, embedded in peat mosses, or transformed, as in some of the harder strata, into stone. Let us imagine, that we possessed sections of the trunks of a considerable number of trees, such as those occurring in the bed called the Dirt-bed,* in the island of Portland. If we were to select a number of trees of about the same size, we should probably find many of them to have been contemporaries. This fact would be rendered probable if we observed, as we doubtless should do, on examining the annual rings, that some of them conspicuous for their size occurred at the same distances of years in several trees. If, for example, we
* The reader will find an account of these fossil trees, and the strata in which they occur, in several papers by Dr. Buckland, Mr, De la Beche, and Dr. Fitton, in the Transactions of the Geological Society of London, vol. iv. Series 2.
APPICNDIX. 229
found on several trees a remarkably large annual ring, followed at the distance of seven years by a remarkably thin ring, and this again, alter two years , followed by another large ring, we should reasonably infer from these trees, that seven years after a season highly favourable to their growth, there had occurred a season peculiarly unfavourable to them: and that after two more years another very favourable season had happened, and that all the trees so observed had existed at the same period of time. The nature of the season, whether hut or cold, wet or dry, would be known with some degree of probability, from the class of tree under consideration. This kind of evidence, though slight at first, receives additional and great confirmation by the discovery of every new ring which supports it; and, by a consider- able concurrence of such observations, the succession of seasons might be in some measure ascertained at remote geological periods.
On examining the shape of the sections of such trees, we might perceive some general tendency to- wards a uniform inequality in their diameters ; and we might perhaps observe that the longer axes of the sections most frequently pointed in one direction. If we knew from the species of tree that it possessed no natural tendency to such an inequality, then we might infer that, during the growth of these trees, they were bent most frequently in one direction ; and hence an indication of the prevailing winds at that time. In
230 APPENDIX.
order to find from which of the two opposite quarters these winds came, we might observe the centres of these sections ; and we should generally find that the rings on one side were closer and more compressed than those on the opposite side. From this we might infer the most exposed side, or that from which the wind most frequently blew. Doubtless there would be many exceptions arising from local circumstances — some trees might have been sheltered from the direct course of the wind, and have only been acted upon by an eddy. Some might have been protected by an adjacent large tree, sufficiently near to shelter it from the ruder gales, but not close enough to obstruct the light and air by which it was nourished. Such a tree might have a series of large and rather uniform rings, during the period of its protection by its neighbour; and these might be followed by a series of stinted and irregular ones, occasioned by the destruction of its protector. The same storm might have mutilated some trees, and half-uprooted others : these latter might strive to sup- port themselves for years, making but little addition, by stinted layers, to the thickness of their stems; and then, having thrown out new roots, they might regain their former rate of growth, until a new tempest again shook them from their places. Similar eflfects might result from floods and the action of rivers on the trees adjacent to their banks. But all these local and peculiar circumstances would disappear, if a sufficient number of sections could be procured from
APPENDIX. 231
fossil trees, spread over a considerable extent of country.
Similar rings might however furnish other inti- mations of a successive existence of these trnes.
On examining some rings remarkable for their size and position, we might find, for instance, in one sec- tion, two remarkably large rings, separated from another large ring, by one very stinted ring, and this followed, after three ordinary years, by two very small and two very large rings. Such a group might be indicated by the letters —
oLLsooosLLoo where o denotes an ordinary year, or ring, L a large one, and s a small or stinted ring.
If such a group occurred in the sections of several different trees, it might fairly be attributed to general causes.
Let us now suppose such a group to be found near the centre of one tree, and towards the external edge or bark of another; we should certainly conclude, that the tree near whose bark it occurred was the more ancient tree ; that it had been advanced in age when that group of seasons occurred which had left their mark near the pith of the more recent tree, which was young at the time those seasons happened. If,
2S2 APPENDIX.
on counting the rings of this tree, we found that there were, counting inward from the bark to this remark- able group, three hundred and fifty rings, we should justly conclude that, three hundred and fifty years before the death of this tree, which we will call A, the other, which we will call B, and whose section we possess, had then been an old tree. If we now search towards the centre of the second tree B, for another remarkable group of rings ; and if we also find a similar group near the bark of a third tree, which we will call C ; and if, on counting the distance of the second group from the first in B, we find an interval of 420 rings, then we draw the inference that the tree A, 350 years before its destruction, was influenced in its growth by a succession of ten remarkable seasons, which also had their effect on a neighbouring tree B, which was at that time of a considerable age. We conclude further, that the tree E was influenced in its youth, or 420 years before the group of the ten seasons, by another remarkable succession of seasons, which also acted on a third tree, C, then old. Thus we connect the time of the death of the tree A with the series of seasons which affected the tree C in its old age, at a period 770 years antecedent. If we could discover other trees having other cycles of seasons, capable of identification, we might trace back the history of that ancient forest, and possibly find in it some indications for conjecturing the time occupied in forming the stratum in which it is embedded.
APPENDIX. 2SS
The application of these views to ascertaining the age of submerged forests, or to that of peat mosses, may possibly connect them ultimately with the chrono- logy of man. Already we have an instance of a wooden hut with a stone hearth before it, and burnt wood on it, and a gate leading to a pile of wood, discovered at a depth of fifteen feet below the surface of a bog in Ireland : and it was found that this hut had probably been built when the bog had only reached half its present thickness, since there were still fifteen feet of turf below it.
The realization of the views here thrown out will require the united exertions of many individuals pa- tiently exerted through a series of years. The first step must be to study fully the relations of the annual rings in every part of an individual tree. The efiect of a favourable or unfavourable season on a section near the root must be compared with the influence of the same circumstance on its growth towards the top of the tree. Vertical sections also must be examined in order to register the annual additions to its height, and to compare them with its increase of thickness. Every branch must be traced to its origin, and its sections be registered. The means of identifying the influence of different seasons in various sections of the same indi- vidual tree and its branches being thus attained, the conclusions thus arrived at must be applied to several trees under similar circumstances, and such modifica-
234^
APPENDIX.
tions must be applied to them as the case may require ; and before any general conclusions can be reached re- specting a tract of country once occupied by a forest, it will be necessary to have a considerable number of sections of trees scattered over various parts of it.
APPENDIX. 235
NOTE N.
ON A METHOD OF MULTIPLYING ILLUSTRATIONS FROM WOOD-CUTS.
Finding the number of wood-cuts necessary to explain the parts of the Calculating Engine consider- able, and the expense great, it appeared to me that the method of copying by casting might, perhaps, be employed for the purpose of diminishing the evil.
The plan which occurred to me was, to make a drawing of that portion of the mechanism required to be explained, which should contain every part neces- sary for its action, and, in some cases, even the frame- work requisite for its support. Such a drawing would be far too complicated for the ordinary reader, and might appear confusion even to the contriver of the machine. This drawing was then to be sent to the wood-cutter to be engraved, and on its return, it was to be sent to the stereotype founder, for the purpose of
236 APPENDIX.
having any number of fac-similes made in type-metal. Now, each of these plates would, like the original wood-cut, express the drawing in reliefs and, by cut- ting away any line in the plate, that line would be re- moved in the impression.
The first thing to be done was, to remove from one of these stereotype plates every line, except those which formed \he framing of the mechanism. The next step was, to remove from another of those plates all the framing, and every other line, except those which re- presented two or three of the principal wheels and levers.
If there should be many such parts, several plates might be taken, on each of which some few parts, not interfering with each other, might be allowed to re- main. Other plates might then be taken, on which the parts given on two or more of the former plates, might be allowed to remain, and other plates might again contain combinations of three or more of these. Thus, by a series of plates, commencing with the sim- plest portions of the mechanism, we might gradually advance through the various combinations, up to the original wood-cut, which, by means of such steps, might be made perfectly intelligible.
The original wood-cut will be more expensive, on account of the additional work contained in it ; but its
APPENDIX. U
multiplication by casting is a cheap process; and the cutting away some of the hnes of each plate, and dotting others, by removing small portions at short intervals, which might, in different plates, require to be represented as passing behind other lines, is not a work of much difficulty or expense. The quantity of illustrations, all printed with the letter-press, which this plan admits of, renders it possible to explain much more complicated machinery than could be accom- plished by engraving, unless at an expense which would effectually preclude its application ; whilst the successive picture of every wheel and lever, exhibited on separate plates if necessary, as well as of every one of those binary and other combinations which are employed, will render the machinery intelligible to a much larger class of persons than those who usually study such subjects.
The same principle may be applied to coloured geological sections and maps. The whole drawing having been sent to the wood-cutter, as many stereo- type fac-similes may be made from his block as there are colours to be represented. One plate may then be taken, from which all the parts are to be scraped out which are not to be coloured brown ; another may be taken from which all parts not to be coloured green ; and so on for all the rest of the colours. The perfect identity of the plates will render it easy to preserve what is technically termed the register, that is, to
238 APPENDIX.
prevent the overlapping of any one colour on any other.
As the method here suggested is extremely simple in its means, it is scarcely possible but that it must have occurred to others ; and it may, perhaps — al- though I am not aware of it — have been employed on some occasions. I have, however, thought, that in giving publicity to it, I should be doing a service to those whose writings require pictorial illustration, and especially to those who cultivate the sciences of me- chanics and geology. Perhaps, also, the same system might be applied to multiply, at a cheap rate, the blocks used in colour printing, both upon paper and on woven fabrics.
On the opposite page, the reader will find an illus- tration of this art ; it is the same plate as that at page 190: it is not very favourable either as to the degree of difficulty, or as to the question of economy ; but it is the only one that the subject of this volume ad- mitted, and is quite sufficient to explain the principle.
The figure at the bottom of the page. No. 4, is the impression from a stereotype plate, which is a fac- simile from the original wood-cut, engraved for the illustration. No. 3, the next above, is the impression from another stereotype plate, from which the lines marked D and F, on No. 4, have been cut away.
G —
No. 1.
•-. F
A -
No. 2.
.,.p
No. 3.
— B
— C
E
No. 4,
-.E - F
240 APPENDIX.
No. 2 is the impression from another plate from which the line E has been cut away ; and No. 1 is an im- pression from a similar plate, from which the lines C and E have been cut out.
The four individual plates have been soldered toge- ther, and form the stereotype plate of the page re- ferred to.
THE END.
R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD-STREET-HILL.
A-
CORRECTIONS, 241
Corrections to Chapter X, and Note E, of the First Edition of the Ninth Bridgewater Treatise.
Some confusion and error has arisen in the statement of the reason- ing by which the refutation of Hume's argument against m.iracles is supported, although the conclusion itself is perfectly correct. Those who are best acquainted with the extreme difficulty and delicacy of the application of mathematics to the doctrine of chance, will most readily excuse the author for his inattention. It may, however, be useful to point out two of the sources of mistake.
The first results from the different interpretations which may be put on Hume's statement, the second arises from the meaning of the words probability and improbability.
In common language, an event is said to be probable when it is more likely to happen than to fail : it is said to be improbable when it is more likely to fail than to happen.
Now, an event whose probability is, in mathematical language, —
P will be called probable or improbable, in ordinary language, according
as p is less or greater than 2.
If, in mathematical language, — expresses the probability of an event happening, 1 expresses the probability of its failing, or the
improbability of its happening.
Another source of error has arisen from not distinguishing between the probability of independent witnesses concurring in a statement before they make it, and the probability of the truth of their testimony after they have given it.
Throughout the inquiry, the term falsehood is applied generally to error, whether arising from accident or intention.
THE READER IS REQUESTED TO MAKE THE ALTERATIONS IN THE TEXT WITH A PEN.
Page 120, last line but 3, read — " that the fact did not occur." „ — last line, read-^^^ that the fact did not occur."
242 CORRECTIONS.
Page 121, lines 5 and [6, read, " would be more probable than that the fact which it endeavours to establish did not occur."
„ — line 11, ybr "probability" r^ac? " improba- bility."
„ 125, line 7, for " true" read " false."
„ 127, and to the end of the Chapter. — It is to be observed that the whole of this reasoning applies only to the inquiry into the chance of the concurrence of independent witnesses previously to their giving their testimony.
The probability, after they have concv/rred, which that concurrence gives to the truth of the event, must be deduced from the following inquiry, which should be substituted for that in the note E, p. 176.
Let us now examine the probability of the truth of an event (whose probability, unsupported by any testi- mony, is -) attested to have occurred by the testimony of n independent, uncoUusive witnesses, whose proba- bility of falsehood is — for each.
p
There are two views which may be taken of the improbability of miracles. We may suppose an urn to contain balls of only two colours, white and black, from which m balls have been drawn, all black ; and the event testified is, that a white ball was the
m + V-^.
Or we may consider the urn to contain m numbers, and the testimony to assert that a given number i was drawn at the first extraction.
The former of these cases is that which is analogous
CORRECTIONS. 243
to the miracle alluded to in the text. It has been observed that m persons have died without any re- surrection, and the probability of the death without
Tit ~\~ 1
resurrection of the (m + 1)*^^ is -p: , and the im-
probability of such an occurrence, independently of
testimony, is ^ ; which is therefore the probability
of a contrary occurrence, or that of a person being raised from the dead.
Now only two hypotheses can be formed, collusion being, by hypothesis, out of the question : either the event did happen, and the witnesses agree in speaking the truth, the probability of their concurrence being
/ 1\" 1 i\ f , and of that of the hypothesis being ^ ;
or the event did not happen, and the witnesses agree in a falsehood, the probability of their concurrence
(J \ ** . 771 "4" 1 - ^ , and that of the hypothesis — .
The probability of the witnesses speaking truth, and the event occurring, is therefore, K'^ 1
(l - -")
V p/ m + 2 {p—iy
/ J __ 1 \" 1 / W' m+i "" {p-\Y + w + 1 '
V p/ m + % \ p ^ m-\-2
and the probability of their falsehood is,
J' m + 1
o
p / m + 2 m -\- \
V pJ m + 2 Vjt?/ m-\-2
But, according to Hume's argument, the falsehood of the witnesses must be more improbable than the
244 CORRECTIONS.
occurrence of the miracle. But the probability of
the occurrence of the miracle, independent of testi-
1 mony, is — — ^ .
Tj m + I ^ \ rlence, , ^t— <r 7: :
dr (w^ + 1) . (m + 2) < {p — \Y -V rn. ^- \ \
{p-\Y >(m+l).(m + 2)-(m + l) >(m+l)2;
which is true, if
^^ ^ ^,log. (m + 1) log. (/? - 1)
It follows, therefore, that however large m may be, or however great the quantity of experience against the occurrence of a miracle, (provided only that there are persons whose statements are more frequently cor- rect than incorrect, and who give their testimony in favour of it without collusion,) a certain number n can ALWAYS be found; so that it shall he a greater im- probability that their unanimous statement shall be a falsehood, than that the miracle shall occur.
Let us now suppose each witness to state one falsehood for every ten truths, or jt> = 11, and m = 1000,000,000,000;
then..>^'"f-('";!+^)>24. ^ log. 10 ^
or twenty-five such witnesses are sufficient.
If the witnesses only state one falsehood for every hundred truths, then thirteen such witnesses are sufficient.
..'Y-
sfl«v>w;!^*!f-';^^.--
'f^\